Effects of Pesticides on the Growth and Reproduction of Earthworm: A Review

Table 1

Laboratory experiments on responses of earthworm to sublethal concentrations of pesticides.

Pesticide	Concentration of pesticide/exposure	Test conditions	Species	Responses	Reference
Copper oxychloride (pure)	8.92, 15.92, 39.47, 108.72, 346.85 mg Cu/ kg substrate; 56 days	Substrate = Dried, ground, finely sieved cattle manure; pH = 7.1±0.2-6.1±0.3; Moisture = 77.6±0.7-78.8±1.1; Temp = 25°C	Eisenia fetida (Freshly hatched earthworms)	Earthworm growth and cocoon production were significantly reduced	[36]
Malathion (pure)	80.150, 300, 600 mg/kg soil; 1, 5, 15, 30 days	Soil like substrate; pH = 6.5,; Temp = 21-22°C,; Moisture = 50%,	Eisenia fetida (Adults)	Significant reduction in body weight; decreased spermatic viability	[31]
Acetochlor	5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg soil; 7, 15, 30, 45 and 60 days (growth); 28 days (reproduction)	OECD artificial soil; pH = 6.5,; Moisture = 50%; Temp = 20±1°C	Eisenia fetida (Adults)	At higher concentrations of acetochlor (20–80 mg/kg growth and numbers of juveniles per cocoon were affected significantly	[39]
Chlorpyrifos (pure)	5, 20, 40, 60, 80 mg/kg soil; 4 and 8 weeks	OECD artificial soil; pH = 6.0±0.5.; Moisture = 50%; Temp = 20°C	Eisenia fetida (Adults)	Adverse impact on growth and reproduction	[45]
Cypermethrin (pure)	5, 10, 20, 40, 60 mg/kg soil; 4 and 8 weeks	OECD artificial soil; pH = 6.0±0.5,; Moisture = 50%; Temp = 20°C	Eisenia fetida (Juveniles)	Significant reduction in cocoon production; Juveniles more sensitive than adults	[47]
Benomyl (pure)	0.32, 1.0, 3.2, 10, 32 mg/kg soil; 56 days	OECD artificial soil; Temp = 20±2°C; pH = 6.1; Moisture = 56%	Eisenia fetida (Adults)	Toxicity of benomyl was lower in tropical than temperate artificial soils; No reproduction in tropical natural soil due to low pH	[24]
		LUFA 2.2; pH = 6.1; Temp = 20±2°C; Moisture = 50%
		Tropical artificial soil; Temp = 28±2°C; pH = 6.6; Moisture = 47%
		Tropical natural soil, Brazil; pH = 3.9; Temp = 28±2°C; Moisture = 40%
Chlorpyrifos (pure); Carbofuran (pure); carbendazim, formulated as Derosal (AgrEvo, 360 g/L)	1, 3, 10, 30, 100, 300, 900 mg/kg soil; 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 mg/kg soil; 0.1, 0.3, 1, 3, 10, 30, 90 mg/kg soil; 28 days, 56 days	OECD artificial soil; Moisture = 50%; Temp = 20±2°C; pH = 6	Eisenia Andrei (Adults)	Toxicity of chlorpyrifos and carbofuran on growth and reproduction in artificial soil was higher at 26°C. in the natural soil; carbendazim toxicity was lower at 26°C in both the soil types	[48]
		LUFA 2.2 soil; Moisture = 50%; Temp= 20±2°C; pH = 5.9-6.1
		OECD artificial soil; Moisture = 50%; Temp = 26±2°C; pH = 6
		Natural soil; Moisture = 45%; Temp = 26±2°C; pH = 6.2
Carbaryl (pure); Dieldrin (pure)	0, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 500 mg/kg soil; 0, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 500 mg/kg soil; 4, 6, 8 weeks	Horse manure, sand and deionized water; Moisture = 75±5%; Temp = 25°C	Eisenia fetida (Juveniles)	Inhibition of growth and cocoon production	[49]
Paraquat (pure),; Parathion (pure); Fentin (pure); Benomyl (pure); Pentachlorophenol (pure); Carbendazim (formulated as Derosal 60%); Phenmedipham (formulated as Betanal 16.2%)	20, 45, 100, 200, 450, 1000 mg/kg soil; 10, 18, 32, 56, 100, 180 mg/kg soil; 0.32, 1, 3.2, 10, 32 mg/kg soil; 0.1, 0.32, 1,3.2 mg/kg soil; 5, 10, 20, 40, 60 mg/kg soil; 0.6, 1.92, 6 mg/kg soil; 1.62, 5.18, 16.2, 51.8, 162 mg/kg soil	OECD artificial soil; pH = 6.0-7.3,; Temp = 20±5°C; Moisture = 35%	Eisenia Andrei (Adults)	Reduction in growth rate; reduction in number of juveniles produced per worm	[27]
Dieldrin (pure)	10, 30, 50, 100 mg/kg; Every 15 days, 90 days	Washed cow manure; Moisture = 60%; Temp = 20°C	Eisenia fetida (Juveniles)	Growth was retarded even at agricultural doze of 5 kg/ha; Clitellum development retarded, influencing reproduction	[50]
Diazinon (formulated as Basudin 600 EW),; Chlorpyrifos (formulated as Lorsban 40 EC)	High = 60 mg/kg; Low = 12 mg/kg; High = 28 mg/kg; Low = 4 mg/kg	Natural soil; pH = 6.5-7,; Temp = 20°C; Moisture = 20-25%	Aporrectodea caliginosa (Adults and juveniles)	Significant effect on growth of juveniles and adults; cocoon production significantly reduced	[46]
Endosulfan formulated as END 35 (endosulfan concentration of 350 g/L); Aldicarb formulated as Temik 10 G	Different concentrations used; LC10 and LC25 for aldicarb; LC10, LC25, and LC50 for endosulfan; 2,7 and 15 days	Natural soil; Temp = 14±1°C,; R.H = 70-90%; pH = 8.16	Lumbricus terrestris (Adults)	Loss in weight; Reduction in the growth rate; Aldicarb was more toxic than endosulfan	[44]
Aldicarb (formulated as aldicarb; granular mix, 10% active ingredient); Cypermethrin (formulated as Cypermethrin emulsifiable concentrate 5%); Profenofos (formulated as Curacron, 50% EC); Chlorfluazuron (formulated as Atabron emulsifiable concentrate 50%); Atrazine (formulated as Gesaprim®, 80% WP); Metalaxyl Mn-Zn (formulated as Ridomil, 72% WP)	Different concentrations used; 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks	Artificial soil; Temp = 23±1°C; R.H = 70-90%	Aporrectodea caliginosa (Adults)	Reduction in growth rate; chlorfluazuron, atrazine, and metalaxyl caused the highest reduction in worm growth rate.	[42]
Chlorpyrifos (pure); Chlorpyrifos formulated as Judo 40 EC; Carbofuran (pure); Carbofuran formulated as Curater (3% a.i.G); Mancozeb (pure)	1, 3, 10, 30, 100, 300 and 900 mg/kg soil; 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 mg/kg soil; 1, 3, 10, 30, 100, 300, 900 and 1200 mg/kg soil	OECD artificial soil; Moisture = 50%; Temp = 26±2°C; pH = 6.5-6.8	Perionyx excavates (Adults)	Toxicity decreased in the order of carbofuran > chlorpyrifos > mancozeb for both the pure compounds and the formulations; Chlorpyrifos, carbofuran and mancozeb are more toxic to P. excavatus than to the standard test species E. andrei at temperatures representative of tropical conditions; Formulated compounds depressed earthworm reproduction more than the pure compounds.	[51]