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| Nanoformulations | Characteristics |
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| Nanoformulations with GEF: |
| GEF-loaded PLGA nanoparticles [141] | Compared to GEF, exhibited higher anticancer activity on A549 lung carcinoma cells and A431 skin carcinoma cells |
| GEF-loaded poly (l-lactic acid) microspheres [190] | Nanoparticles were prepared by supercritical antisolvent (SAS) technology which were spherical, having a smaller and narrower particle size in comparison to GEF |
| GEF-loaded poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microspheres [191] | GEF-loaded polymeric microspheres were synthesized using an oil-in-water solvent evaporation method and wet-sieved to result in well-defined size fractions which corresponded to their characteristic drug release properties |
| GEF-loaded poly (ethylene glycol) 2000-distearoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DSPE-PEG2000) nano micelles conjugated with CD133 aptamers (M-Gef-CD133) [192] | First study to utilize nanoparticles to overcome the GEF resistance of lung cancer stem cells (CSCs) and could effectively deliver GEF to CD133+ lung CSCs |
| GEF-loaded blood cockle shells-derived calcium carbonate nanoparticles (GEF-CSCaCO3NP) [130] | GEF-CSCaCO3 NP synthesized using blood cockle shells (Anadara granosa) had a spherical shape with a diameter of 83.9 ± 28.2 nm and demonstrated zero-order kinetics with slow and sustained release |
| GEF on gold nanoparticles (AuNP) conjugated with EGFR antibody [193] | Synthesized nanoconjugates showed higher reduction in cellular viability in comparison with free GEF against A549, NCI-H460, and NCI-H1975 lung cancer cells after treatment for 48 hours |
| GEF-loaded poly(e-caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(e-caprolactone) [194] | Compared to free GEF, the nanodrug has boosted antitumor effects and reduced toxic effects, and the survival time was prolonged in BALB-C athymic nude mice |
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| Nanoformulations of GEF with a combination drug |
| GEF-entrapped folic acid (FA) decorated bovine serum albumin (BSA) conjugated carboxymethyl-β-cyclodextrin (CM-β-CD) nanoparticles (FA-BSA-CM-β-CD NPs) [195] | FA-BSA-CM-β-CD nanoparticles were monodispersed and spherical and were able to induce apoptosis in Hela cells. These nanoparticles were internalised by clathrin-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis. |
| GEF and chloroquine-loaded chitosan NPs [196] | Co-delivery resulted in accelerated apoptosis and improved response in chemotherapy-resistant hepatocellular carcinoma (QGY) cell lines |
| GEF + paclitaxel- (PTXL-) loaded blood cockle shells-derived calcium carbonate nanoparticles (GEF-PTXL-CSCaCO3NP) [197] | GEF-PTXL-loaded blood cockle shell-derived calcium carbonate nanoparticles CSCaCO3NP synthesized without usage of toxic chemicals showed acceptable physicochemical characteristics being negative charged, spherical, mesoporous, and having zero-order kinetics of drug release |
| Folic acid- (FA-) conjugated GEF/capsaicin polymeric (PLGA-PEG) nanoparticles [198] | Synthesized for co-administration of GEF and capsaicin-loaded nanoparticles, and it resulted in a reduction of NSCLC tumor volume compared to treatment with individual drugs in albino mice. Significant downregulation of MMP9 and upregulation of caspase-3 and caspase-9 were observed in comparison to the individual therapy with GEF capsaicin. |
| Heavy chain Apoferritin/GEF (H-Aft/GEF) [199] | GEF in the H-Aft/GEF nanoparticles showed sustained release. Potent and improved antitumor activity was observed in EGFR2 expressing SK-BR-3 cell line when treated with H-Aft/GEF when compared with GEF alone (GI50 = 0.52 × 10−6 M versus GEF alone GI50 = 1.66 × 10−6 M at 120 hours incubation) |
| GEF/quantum dots-loaded peptide long-circulating liposomes [200] | Synthesized as a prognostic tool and a therapeutic agent for nasopharyngeal carcinoma which has resulted in increased drug uptake, with dose- and time-dependent cell growth inhibition |
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