Table 1: Examples of parallel evolution of viral innate immune evasion mechanisms.

(a) Bacteria

Mechanism Viral evasion strategy Virus protein CRISPER Genetic variation of DNA DNA polymerase [26] Psp-induced signaling Unknown (Psp genetic variation) Unknown Restriction/methylation Methylation of viral target DNA Acquired bacterial methylase [26] Apoptosis Lysogeny/tolerance Phage lysis gene regulation [27]

(b) Drosophila

Mechanism Evasion strategy Viral protein DICER1 Genetic variation of DNA Virus encodes miRNAs [28] Vago IkB, Jak/Stat inhibitors Viral IkB, unknown inhibitor of Jak/STAT [29] DICER2 Binding of ds RNA FHV-B2 protein [30] Apoptosis Inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) Baculovirus p35 [31, 32]

(c) Mammalian systems

Mechanism Evasion strategy Viral protein Interferon signaling dsRNA binding Influenza virus NS1 [33], VACV E3 (also inhibits DNApol III DNA sensing) [34] Inhibition of signaling VACV N1 family [5, 35–37], HCV NS3A/4 [38], influenza virus NS1 [33], HCV core proteins inhibit Jak/Stat signaling [39], HCV NS5A inhibits MyD88 [40], HIV Vif, and Vpr degrade IRF3 [37] Inhibition of IFN binding VACV soluble IFN alpha/beta receptors [41] Viral RNA/DNA sensing Inhibitors of RIG-I HCV NS3A/4 proteolytic cleavage of MAVS [38, 42] Inhibitors of MDA5, LGP2 Paramyxovirus V proteins [43] Inhibitors of DDX3 VACV K7 [5] Inhibitors of the AIM2/NLRP3 Inflammasome KSHV vNLR [44], myxoma virus M013 [45] Inhibitors of proteins activated downstream of the AIM2/NLRP3 inflammasome Cowpox virus crmA VACV SPI-2, sIL-1R, and sIL-18R [41] DAI EBV EBERmiRNAs [25] Programmed cell death Viral inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) KSHV vFLIP [46] Viral bcl-2s EBV bhrf1 and balf1 [47, 48], KSHV orf16 [49] Blockade of IL-1-mediated pyroptosis Poxvirus crmA, sIL-1, sIL18 [41]