About this Journal Submit a Manuscript Table of Contents 
Advances in Virology
Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 434036, 13 pages
doi:10.1155/2012/434036
Review Article

Glances in Immunology of HIV and HCV Infection

Maria Giovanna Quaranta, Benedetta Mattioli, and Stefano Vella

Department of Therapeutics and Medicines Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanita', 00161 Rome, Italy

Received 8 February 2012; Accepted 12 March 2012

Academic Editor: Domenico Genovese

Copyright © 2012 Maria Giovanna Quaranta et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

  1. A. J. McMichael, P. Borrow, G. D. Tomaras, N. Goonetilleke, and B. F. Haynes, “The immune response during acute HIV-1 infection: clues for vaccine development,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 11–23, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  2. M. Cadogan and A. G. Dalgleish, “HIV immunopathogenesis and strategies for intervention,” Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol. 8, no. 11, pp. 675–684, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  3. D. Warrilow, D. Stenzel, and D. Harrich, “Isolated HIV-1 core is active for reverse transcription,” Retrovirology, vol. 4, article 77, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  4. Z. Grossman, M. Meier-Schellersheim, W. E. Paul, and L. J. Picker, “Pathogenesis of HIV infection: what the virus spares is as important as what it destroys,” Nature Medicine, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 289–295, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  5. T. W. Schacker, J. P. Hughes, T. Shea, R. W. Coombs, and L. Corey, “Biological and virologic characteristics of primary HIV infection,” Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 128, no. 8, pp. 613–620, 1998. View at Scopus
  6. E. S. Ford, C. E. Puronen, and I. Sereti, “Immunopathogenesis of asymptomatic chronic HIV Infection: the calm before the storm,” Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 206–214, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  7. S. G. Deeks and B. D. Walker, “The immune response to AIDS virus infection: good, bad, or both?” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 113, no. 6, pp. 808–810, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  8. T. H. Mogensen, J. Melchjorsen, C. S. Larsen, and S. R. Paludan, “Innate immune recognition and activation during HIV infection,” Retrovirology, vol. 7, article 54, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  9. B. Rehermann, “Hepatitis C virus versus innate and adaptive immune responses: a tale of coevolution and coexistence,” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 119, no. 7, pp. 1745–1754, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  10. M. Wawrzynowicz-Syczewska, J. Kubicka, Z. Lewandowski, A. Boroń-Kaczmarska, and M. Radkowski, “Natural history of acute symptomatic hepatitis type C,” Infection, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 138–143, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  11. J. T. Gerlach, H. M. Diepolder, R. Zachoval et al., “Acute hepatitis C: high rate of both spontaneous and treatment-induced viral clearance,” Gastroenterology, vol. 125, no. 1, pp. 80–88, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  12. J. M. Micallef, J. M. Kaldor, and G. J. Dore, “Spontaneous viral clearance following acute hepatitis C infection: a systematic review of longitudinal studies,” Journal of Viral Hepatitis, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 34–41, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  13. C. B. Bigger, K. M. Brasky, and R. E. Lanford, “DNA microarray analysis of chimpanzee liver during acute resolving hepatitis C virus infection,” Journal of Virology, vol. 75, no. 15, pp. 7059–7066, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  14. A. I. Su, J. P. Pezacki, L. Wodicka et al., “Genomic analysis of the host response to hepatitis C virus infection,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 99, no. 24, pp. 15669–15674, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  15. T. Wakita, T. Pietschmann, T. Kato et al., “Production of infectious hepatitis C virus in tissue culture from a cloned viral genome,” Nature Medicine, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 791–796, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  16. J. Zhong, P. Gastaminza, G. Cheng et al., “Robust hepatitis C virus infection in vitro,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 102, no. 26, pp. 9294–9299, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  17. M. Yi, R. A. Villanueva, D. L. Thomas, T. Wakita, and S. M. Lemon, “Production of infectious genotype 1a hepatitis C virus (Hutchinson strain) in cultured human hepatoma cells,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 103, no. 7, pp. 2310–2315, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  18. G. Duverlie and C. Wychowski, “Cell culture systems for the hepatitis C virus,” World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 13, no. 17, pp. 2442–2445, 2007. View at Scopus
  19. M. S. Sulkowski, “Hepatitis C virus-human immunodeficiency virus coinfection,” Liver International, vol. 32, supplement 1, pp. 129–134, 2012.
  20. M. Jones and Y. Núñez, “HIV and hepatitis C co-infection: the role of HAART in HIV/hepatitis C virus management,” Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, vol. 6, pp. 546–552, 2011.
  21. M. L. C. Vachon and D. T. Dieterich, “HIV/HCV-coinfected patient and new treatment options,” Clinics In Liver Disease, vol. 15, pp. 585–596, 2011.
  22. R. Medzhitov and C. Janeway Jr., “Innate immunity,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 343, pp. 338–344, 2000.
  23. T. H. Mogensen, “Pathogen recognition and inflammatory signaling in innate immune defenses,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 240–273, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  24. M. Altfeld, L. Fadda, D. Frleta, and N. Bhardwaj, “DCs and NK cells: critical effectors in the immune response to HIV-1,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 176–186, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  25. V. Piguet and R. M. Steinman, “The interaction of HIV with dendritic cells: outcomes and pathways,” Trends in Immunology, vol. 28, no. 11, pp. 503–510, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  26. A. Iwasaki and R. Medzhitov, “Regulation of adaptive immunity by the innate immune system,” Science, vol. 327, no. 5963, pp. 291–295, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  27. M. G. Katze Jr., Y. He, and M. Gale Jr., “Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 2, no. 9, pp. 675–687, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  28. S. Akira, S. Uematsu, and O. Takeuchi, “Pathogen recognition and innate immunity,” Cell, vol. 124, no. 4, pp. 783–801, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  29. G. C. Sen, “Viruses and interferons,” Annual Review of Microbiology, vol. 55, pp. 255–281, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  30. F. Heil, H. Hemmi, H. Hochrein et al., “Species-specific recognition of single-stranded rna via till-like receptor 7 and 8,” Science, vol. 303, no. 5663, pp. 1526–1529, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  31. L. Alexopoulou, A. C. Holt, R. Medzhitov, and R. A. Flavell, “Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-κB by Toll-like receptor 3,” Nature, vol. 413, no. 6857, pp. 732–738, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  32. O. Takeuchi and S. Akira, “Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation,” Cell, vol. 140, no. 6, pp. 805–820, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  33. T. B. Geijtenbeek, D. S. Kwon, R. Torensma et al., “DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells,” Cell, vol. 100, no. 5, pp. 587–597, 2000. View at Scopus
  34. T. Lehner, Y. Wang, J. Pido-Lopez, T. Whittall, L. A. Bergmeier, and K. Babaahmady, “The emerging role of innate immunity in protection against HIV-1 infection,” Vaccine, vol. 26, no. 24, pp. 2997–3001, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  35. L. Hussain and T. Lehner, “Comparative investigation of Langerhans' cells and potential receptors for HIV in oral, genitourinary and rectal epithelia,” Immunology, vol. 85, no. 3, pp. 475–484, 1995. View at Scopus
  36. F. Groot, T. M. van Capel, M. L. Kapsenberg, B. Berkhout, and E. C. de Jong, “Opposing roles of blood myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in HIV-1 infection of T cells: transmission facilitation versus replication inhibition,” Blood, vol. 108, no. 6, pp. 1957–1964, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  37. J. P. Herbeuval and G. M. Shearer, “HIV-1 immunopathogenesis: how good interferon turns bad,” Clinical Immunology, vol. 123, no. 2, pp. 121–128, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  38. M. Colonna, F. Navarro, T. Bellon et al., “A common inhibitory receptor for major histocompatibility complex class I molecules on human lymphoid and myelomonocytic cells,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 186, no. 11, pp. 1809–1818, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  39. F. Cocchi, A. L. DeVico, A. Garzino-Demo, S. K. Arya, R. C. Gallo, and P. Lusso, “Identification of RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β as the major HIV-suppressive factors produced by CD8+ T cells,” Science, vol. 270, no. 5243, pp. 1811–1815, 1995. View at Scopus
  40. T. Lehner, Y. Wang, M. Cranage et al., “Up-regulation of β-chemokines and down-modulation of CCR5 co-receptors inhibit simian immunodeficiency virus transmission in non-human primates,” Immunology, vol. 99, no. 4, pp. 569–577, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  41. D. A. Ferrick, M. D. Schrenzel, T. Mulvania, B. Hsieh, W. C. Ferlin, and H. Lepper, “Differential production of IFN-γ and IL-4 in response to Th1- and Th2-stimulating pathogens by γδ T cells in vivo,” Nature, vol. 373, no. 6511, pp. 255–257, 1995. View at Scopus
  42. M. Wallace, S. R. Bartz, W. L. Changs, D. A. Mackenzie, C. D. Pauza, and M. Malkovsky, “γδ T lymphocyte responses to human immuno- deficiency virus,” Clinical & Experimental Immunology, vol. 103, pp. 177–184, 1996.
  43. L. Sun, C. M. Finnegan, T. Kish-Catalone et al., “Human β-defensins suppress human immunodeficiency virus infection: potential role in mucosal protection,” Journal of Virology, vol. 79, no. 22, pp. 14318–14329, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  44. Y. L. Chiu and W. C. Greene, “The APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases: an innate defensive network opposing exogenous retroviruses and endogenous retroelements,” Annual Review of Immunology, vol. 26, pp. 317–353, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  45. S. J. Neil, T. Zang, and P. D. Bieniasz, “Tetherin inhibits retrovirus release and is antagonized by HIV-1 Vpu,” Nature, vol. 451, no. 7177, pp. 425–430, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  46. M. W. Yap, S. Nisole, C. Lynch, and J. P. Stoye, “Trim5α protein restricts both HIV-1 and murine leukemia virus,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 29, pp. 10786–10791, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  47. T. Hatziioannou, D. Perez-Caballero, A. Yang, S. Cowan, and P. D. Bieniasz, “Retrovirus resistance factors Ref1 and Lv1 are species-specific variants of TRIM5α,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 29, pp. 10774–10779, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  48. D. I. Tai, S. L. Tsai, Y. M. Chen et al., “Activation of nuclear factor κB in hepatitis C virus infection: implications for pathogenesis and hepatocarcinogenesis,” Hepatology, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 656–664, 2000. View at Scopus
  49. J. T. Guo, J. A. Sohn, Q. Zhu, and C. Seeger, “Mechanism of the interferon alpha response against hepatitis C virus replicons,” Virology, vol. 325, no. 1, pp. 71–81, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  50. K. Cheent and S. I. Khakoo, “Natural killer cells and hepatitis C: action and reaction,” Gut, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 268–278, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  51. G. D. Tomaras and B. F. Haynes, “HIV-1-specific antibody responses during acute and chronic HIV-1 infection,” Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 373–379, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  52. M. Rode, S. Balkow, V. Sobek et al., “Perforin and fas act together in the induction of apoptosis, and both are critical in the clearance of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection,” Journal of Virology, vol. 78, no. 22, pp. 12395–12405, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  53. S. A. Younes, B. Yassine-Diab, A. R. Dumont et al., “HIV-1 viremia prevents the establishment of interleukin 2-producing HIV-specific memory CD4+ T cells endowed with proliferative capacity,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 198, no. 12, pp. 1909–1922, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  54. C. Dong, “TH17 cells in development: an updated view of their molecular identity and genetic programming,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 337–348, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  55. A. Prendergast, J. G. Prado, Y. H. Kang et al., “HIV-1 infection is characterized by profound depletion of CD161+ Th17 cells and gradual decline in regulatory T cells,” AIDS, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 491–502, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  56. S. Dandekar, M. D. George, and A. J. Bäumler, “Th17 cells, HIV and the gut mucosal barrier,” Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 173–178, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  57. S. Sakaguchi, “Naturally arising CD4+ regulatory T cells for immunologic self-tolerance and negative control of immune responses,” Annual Review of Immunology, vol. 22, pp. 531–562, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  58. W. Cao, B. D. Jamieson, L. E. Hultin, P. M. Hultin, and R. Detels, “Regulatory T cell expansion and immune activation during untreated HIV type 1 infection are associated with disease progression,” AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 183–191, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  59. J. D. Estes, S. Wietgrefe, T. Schacker et al., “Simian immunodeficiency virus-induced lymphatic tissue fibrosis is mediated by transforming growth factor β1-positive regulatory T cells and begins in early infection,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 195, no. 4, pp. 551–561, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  60. P. A. Apoil, B. Puissant, F. Roubinet, M. Abbal, P. Massip, and A. Blancher, “FOXP3 mRNA levels are decreased in peripheral blood CD4+ lymphocytes from HIV-positive patients,” Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 381–385, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  61. M. P. Eggena, B. Barugahare, N. Jones et al., “Depletion of regulatory T cells in HIV infection is associated with immune activation,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 174, no. 7, pp. 4407–4414, 2005. View at Scopus
  62. S. Razvi, L. Schneider, M. M. Jonas, and C. Cunningham-Rundles, “Outcome of intravenous immunoglobulin-transmitted hepatitis C virus infection in primary immunodeficiency,” Clinical Immunology, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 284–288, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  63. H. M. Chapel, J. M. Christie, V. Peach, and R. W. G. Chapman, “Five-year follow-up of patients with primary antibody deficiencies following an outbreak of acute hepatitis C,” Clinical Immunology, vol. 99, no. 3, pp. 320–324, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  64. M. Chen, M. Sällberg, A. Sönnerborg et al., “Limited humoral immunity in hepatitis C virus infection,” Gastroenterology, vol. 116, no. 1, pp. 135–143, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  65. S. L. Tsai, Y. F. Liaw, M. H. Chen, C. Y. Huang, and G. C. Kuo, “Detection of type 2-like T-helper cells in hepatitis C virus infection: implications for hepatitis C virus chronicity,” Hepatology, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 449–458, 1997. View at Scopus
  66. P. Farci, H. J. Alter, D. C. Wong et al., “Prevention of hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees after antibody-mediated in vitro neutralization,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 91, no. 16, pp. 7792–7796, 1994. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  67. Y. K. Shimizu, H. Igarashi, T. Kiyohara et al., “A hyperimmune serum against a synthetic peptide corresponding to the hypervariable region 1 of hepatitis C virus can prevent viral infection in cell cultures,” Virology, vol. 223, no. 2, pp. 409–412, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  68. P. Farci, A. Shimoda, D. Wong et al., “Prevention of hepatitis C virus infection in chimpanzees by hyperimmune serum against the hypervariable region 1 of the envelope 2 protein,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 93, no. 26, pp. 15394–15399, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  69. Y. K. Shimizu, M. Hijikata, A. Iwamoto, H. J. Alter, R. H. Purcell, and H. Yoshikura, “Neutralizing antibodies against hepatitis C virus and the emergence of neutralization escape mutant viruses,” Journal of Virology, vol. 68, no. 3, pp. 1494–1500, 1994. View at Scopus
  70. K. Yamaguchi, E. Tanaka, K. Higashi et al., “Adaptation of hepatitis C virus for persistent infection in patients with acute hepatitis,” Gastroenterology, vol. 106, no. 5, pp. 1344–1348, 1994. View at Scopus
  71. K. Bjøro, S. S. Frøland, Z. Yun, H. H. Samdal, and T. Haaland, “Hepatitis C infection in patients with primary hypogammaglobulinemia after treatment with contaminated immune globulin,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 331, no. 24, pp. 1607–1611, 1994. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  72. E. C. Shin, U. Seifert, T. Kato et al., “Virus-induced type I IFN stimulates generation of immunoproteasomes at the site of infection,” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 116, no. 11, pp. 3006–3014, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  73. R. Thimme, J. Bukh, H. C. Spangenberg et al., “Viral and immunological determinants of hepatitis C virus clearance, persistence, and disease,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 99, no. 24, pp. 15661–15668, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  74. H. M. Diepolder, R. Zachoval, R. M. Hoffmann et al., “Possible mechanism involving T-lymphocyte response to non-structural protein 3 in viral clearance in acute hepatitis C virus infection,” The Lancet, vol. 346, no. 8981, pp. 1006–1007, 1995. View at Scopus
  75. F. Lechner, D. K. Wong, P. R. Dunbar et al., “Analysis of successful immune responses in persons infected with hepatitis C virus,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 191, no. 9, pp. 1499–1512, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  76. G. M. Lauer, E. Barnes, M. Lucas et al., “High resolution analysis of cellular immune responses in resolved and persistent hepatitis C virus infection,” Gastroenterology, vol. 127, no. 3, pp. 924–936, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  77. N. H. Gruner, T. J. Gerlach, M.-C. Jung, et al., “Association of hepatitis C virus-specific CD8+ T cells with viral clearnce in acute hepatitis C,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 181, pp. 1528–1536, 2000.
  78. M. Cucchiarini, A. R. Kammer, B. Brahscheid, et al., “Vigorous peripheral blood cytotoxic T cell response during the acute phase of hepatitis C virus infection,” Cellular Immunology, vol. 203, pp. 111–123, 2000.
  79. S. Cooper, A. L. Erickson, E. J. Adams et al., “Analysis of a successful immune response against hepatitis C virus,” Immunity, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 439–449, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  80. R. Thimme, D. Oldach, K. M. Chang, C. Steiger, S. C. Ray, and F. V. Chisari, “Determinants of viral clearance and persistence during acute hepatitis C virus infection,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 194, no. 10, pp. 1395–1406, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  81. V. Kasprowicz, J. S. Zur Wiesch, T. Kuntzen et al., “High level of PD-1 expression on hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cells during acute HCV infection, irrespective of clinical outcome,” Journal of Virology, vol. 82, no. 6, pp. 3154–3160, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  82. F. Lechner, D. K. H. Wong, P. R. Dunbar et al., “Analysis of successful immune responses in persons infected with hepatitis C virus,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 191, no. 9, pp. 1499–1512, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  83. S. Urbani, B. Amadei, P. Fisicaro et al., “Outcome of acute hepatitis C is related to virus-specific CD4 function and maturation of antiviral memory CD8 responses,” Hepatology, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 126–139, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  84. R. Wyatt, E. Des Jardins, R. W. Sweet, J. Robinson, W. A. Hendrickson, and J. G. Sodroski, “The antigenic structure of the HIV gp120 envelope glycoprotein,” Nature, vol. 393, no. 6686, pp. 705–711, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  85. N. K. Back, L. Smit, J. J. De Jong et al., “An N-glycan within the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 V3 loop affects virus neutralization,” Virology, vol. 199, no. 2, pp. 431–438, 1994. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  86. W. Kamp, M. B. Berk, C. J. Visser, and H. S. Nottet, “Mechanisms of HIV-1 to escape from the host immune surveillance,” European Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 740–746, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  87. P. J. Goulder, C. Brander, Y. Tang et al., “Evolution and transmission of stable CTL escape mutations in HIV infection,” Nature, vol. 412, no. 6844, pp. 334–338, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  88. Y. Yokomaku, H. Miura, H. Tomiyama et al., “Impaired processing and presentation of cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes are major escape mechanisms from CTL immune pressure in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection,” Journal of Virology, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 1324–1332, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  89. N. Gulzar, “CD8+ T-cells: function and response to HIV infection,” Current HIV Research, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 23–37, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  90. M. Lambotin, S. Raghuraman, F. Stoll-Keller, T. F. Baumert, and H. Barth, “A look behind closed doors: interaction of persistent viruses with dendritic cells,” Nature Reviews Microbiology, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 350–360, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  91. B. Liu, A. M. Woltman, H. L. Janssen, and A. Boonstra, “Modulation of dendritic cell function by persistent viruses,” Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 205–214, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  92. M. J. Gale Jr., M. J. Korth, and M. G. Katze Jr., “Repression of the PKR protein kinase by the hepatitis C virus NS5A protein: a potential mechanism of interferon resistance,” Clinical and Diagnostic Virology, vol. 10, no. 2-3, pp. 157–162, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  93. S. Chang, K. Kodys, and G. Szabo, “Impaired expression and function of toll-like receptor 7 in hepatitis C virus infection in human hepatoma cells,” Hepatology, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 35–42, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  94. A. M. Woltman, A. Boonstra, and H. L. Janssen, “Dendritic cells in chronic viral hepatitis B and C: victims or guardian angels?” Gut, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 115–125, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  95. E. J. Ryan and C. O'Farrelly, “The affect of chronic hepatitis C infection on dendritic cell function: a summary of the experimental evidence,” Journal of Viral Hepatitis, vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 601–607, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  96. H. Murakami, S. M. F. Akbar, H. Matsui, N. Horiike, and M. Onji, “Decreased interferon-α production and impaired T helper 1 polarization by dendritic cells from patients with chronic hepatitis C,” Clinical and Experimental Immunology, vol. 137, no. 3, pp. 559–565, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  97. T. Kanto, M. Inoue, M. Miyazaki et al., “Impaired function of dendritic cells circulating in patients infected with hepatitis C virus who have persistently normal alanine aminotransferase levels,” Intervirology, vol. 49, no. 1-2, pp. 58–63, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  98. T. Kanto, M. Inoue, H. Miyatake et al., “Reduced numbers and impaired ability of myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells to polarize T helper cells in chronic hepatitis C virus infection,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 190, no. 11, pp. 1919–1926, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  99. A. Ulsenheimer, J. T. Gerlach, M. C. Jung et al., “Plasmacytoid dendritic cells in acute and chronic hepatitis C virus infection,” Hepatology, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 643–651, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  100. S. Della Bella, A. Crosignani, A. Riva et al., “Decrease and dysfunction of dendritic cells correlate with impaired hepatitis C virus-specific CD4+ T-cell proliferation in patients with hepatitis C virus infection,” Immunology, vol. 121, no. 2, pp. 283–292, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  101. R. S. Longman, A. H. Talal, I. M. Jacobson, C. M. Rice, and M. L. Albert, “Normal functional capacity in circulating myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in patients with chronic hepatitis C,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 192, no. 3, pp. 497–503, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  102. L. Averill, W. M. Lee, and N. J. Karandikar, “Differential dysfunction in dendritic cell subsets during chronic HCV infection,” Clinical Immunology, vol. 123, no. 1, pp. 40–49, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  103. R. S. Longman, A. H. Talal, I. M. Jacobson, M. L. Albert, and C. M. Rice, “Presence of functional dendritic cells in patients chronically infected with hepatitis C virus,” Blood, vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 1026–1029, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  104. D. Piccioli, S. Tavarini, S. Nuti et al., “Comparable functions of plasmacytoid and monocyte-derived dendritic cells in chronic hepatitis C patients and healthy donors,” Journal of Hepatology, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 61–67, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  105. D. D. Anthony, N. L. Yonkers, A. B. Post et al., “Selective impairments in dendritic cell-associated function distinguish hepatitis C virus and HIV infection,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 172, no. 8, pp. 4907–4916, 2004. View at Scopus
  106. J. A. Mengshol, L. Golden-Mason, N. Castelblanco, et al., “Impaired plasmacytoid dendritic cell maturation and differential chemotaxis in chronic hepatitis C virus: associations with antiviral treatment outcomes,” Gut, vol. 58, pp. 964–973, 2009.
  107. S. Crotta, A. Stilla, A. Wack et al., “Inhibition of natural killer cells through engagement of CD81 by the major hepatitis C virus envelope protein,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 195, no. 1, pp. 35–41, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  108. C. T. Tseng and G. R. Klimpel, “Binding of the hepatitis C virus envelope protein E2 to CD81 inhibits natural killer cell functions,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 195, no. 1, pp. 43–49, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  109. L. Golden-Mason and H. R. Rosen, “Natural killer cells: primary target for hepatitis C virus immune evasion strategies?” Liver Transplantation, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 363–372, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  110. R. Liu, W. A. Paxton, S. Choe et al., “Homozygous defect in HIV-1 coreceptor accounts for resistance of some multiply-exposed individuals to HIV-1 infection,” Cell, vol. 86, no. 3, pp. 367–377, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  111. D. den Uyl, I. E. van der Horst-Bruinsma, and M. van Agtmael, “Progression of HIV to AIDS: a protective role for HLA-B27?” AIDS Reviews, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 89–96, 2004. View at Scopus
  112. H. Streeck, M. Lichterfeld, G. Alter et al., “Recognition of a defined region within p24 GAG by CD8+ T cells during primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in individuals expressing protective HLA class I alleles,” Journal of Virology, vol. 81, no. 14, pp. 7725–7731, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  113. A. McMichael, “T cell responses and viral escape,” Cell, vol. 93, no. 5, pp. 673–676, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  114. I. P. Keet, J. Tang, M. R. Klein et al., “Consistent associations of HLA class I and II and transporter gene products with progression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in homosexual men,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 180, no. 2, pp. 299–309, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  115. H. Hendel, S. Caillat-Zucman, H. Lebuanec et al., “New class I and II HLA alleles strongly associated with opposite patterns of progression to AIDS,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 162, no. 11, pp. 6942–6946, 1999. View at Scopus
  116. S. P. Buchbinder, M. H. Katz, N. A. Hessol, P. M. O'Malley, and S. D. Holmberg, “Long-term HIV-1 infection without immunologic progression,” AIDS, vol. 8, no. 8, pp. 1123–1128, 1994. View at Scopus
  117. P. J. Easterbrook, “Long-term non-progression in HIV infection: definitions and epidemiological issues,” Journal of Infection, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 71–73, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  118. R. A. Kaslow, M. Carrington, R. Apple et al., “Influence of combinations of human major histocompatibility complex genes on the course of HIV-1 infection,” Nature Medicine, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 405–411, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  119. M. Magierowska, I. Theodorou, P. Debré et al., “Combined genotypes of CCR5, CCR2, SDF1, and HLA genes can predict the long-term nonprogressor status in human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected individuals,” Blood, vol. 93, no. 3, pp. 936–941, 1999. View at Scopus
  120. E. Trachtenberg, B. Korber, C. Sollars et al., “Advantage of rare HLA supertype in HIV disease progression,” Nature Medicine, vol. 9, no. 7, pp. 928–935, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  121. P. J. Goulder and D. I. Watkins, “HIV and SIV CTL escape: implications for vaccine design,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 630–640, 2004. View at Scopus
  122. A. Pontillo, L. A. Brandao, R. L. Guimaraes, L. Segat, E. Athanasakis, and S. A. Crovella, “3'UTR SNP in NLRP3 gene is associated with susceptibility to HIV-1 infection,” Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol. 54, pp. 236–240, 2010.
  123. P. Y. Bochud, M. Hersberger, P. Taffé, et al., “Polymorphisms in Toll-like receptor 9 influence the clinical course of HIV-1 infection,” AIDS, vol. 21, pp. 441–446, 2007.
  124. S. O. Pine, M. J. McElrath, and P. Y. Bochud, “Polymorphisms in toll-like receptor 4 and toll-like receptor 9 influence viral load in a seroincident cohort of HIV-1-infected individuals,” AIDS, vol. 23, no. 18, pp. 2387–2395, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  125. D. Y. Oh, K. Baumann, O. Hamouda et al., “A frequent functional toll-like receptor 7 polymorphism is associated with accelerated HIV-1 disease progression,” AIDS, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 297–307, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  126. A. Meier, J. J. Chang, E. S. Chan et al., “Sex differences in the Toll-like receptor-mediated response of plasmacytoid dendritic cells to HIV-1,” Nature Medicine, vol. 15, no. 8, pp. 955–959, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  127. H. Farzadegan, D. R. Hoover, J. Astemborski et al., “Sex differences in HIV-1 viral load and progression to AIDS,” The Lancet, vol. 352, no. 9139, pp. 1510–1514, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  128. M. W. Fried, M. L. Shiffman, K. R. Reddy et al., “Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 347, no. 13, pp. 975–982, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  129. J. Nattermann, L. Leifeld, and U. Spengler, “Host genetic factors and treatment of hepatitis C,” Current Molecular Pharmacology, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 171–180, 2008. View at Scopus
  130. L. J. Yee, “Host genetic determinants in hepatitis C virus infection,” Genes and Immunity, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 237–245, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  131. R. Singh, R. Kaul, A. Kaul, and K. Khan, “A comparative review of HLA associates with hepatitis B and C viral infections across global populations,” World Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 1770–1787, 2007. View at Scopus
  132. D. Ge, J. Fellay, A. J. Thompson et al., “Genetic variation in IL28B predicts hepatitis C treatment-induced viral clearance,” Nature, vol. 461, no. 7262, pp. 399–401, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  133. V. Suppiah, M. Moldovan, G. Ahlenstiel et al., “IL28B is associated with response to chronic hepatitis C interferon-α and ribavirin therapy,” Nature Genetics, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 1100–1104, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  134. A. Balagopal, D. L. Thomas, and C. L. Thio, “IL28B and the control of hepatitis C virus infection,” Gastroenterology, vol. 139, no. 6, pp. 1865–1876, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  135. Y. Tanaka, N. Nishida, M. Sugiyama et al., “Genome-wide association of IL28B with response to pegylated interferon-α and ribavirin therapy for chronic hepatitis C,” Nature Genetics, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 1105–1109, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  136. R. Lopez-Rodriguez, M. Trapero-Marugan, M. J. Borque, et al., “Genetic variants of interferon-stimulated genes and IL-28B as host prognostic factors of response to combination treatment for chronic hepatitis C,” Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol. 90, pp. 712–721, 2011.
  137. H. M. Diepolder, J. T. Gerlach, R. Zachoval et al., “Immunodominant CD4+ T-cell epitope within nonstructural protein 3 in acute hepatitis C virus infection,” Journal of Virology, vol. 71, no. 8, pp. 6011–6019, 1997. View at Scopus
  138. V. Lamonaca, G. Missale, S. Urbani et al., “Conserved hepatitis C virus sequences are highly immunogenic for CD4+ T cells: implications for vaccine development,” Hepatology, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 1088–1098, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  139. S. Barrett, M. Sweeney, and J. Crowe, “Host immune responses in hepatitis C virus clearance,” European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, vol. 17, pp. 1089–1097, 2005.
  140. S. I. Khakoo, C. L. Thio, M. P. Martin et al., “HLA and NK cell inhibitory receptor genes in resolving hepatitis C virus infection,” Science, vol. 305, no. 5685, pp. 872–874, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  141. S. Knapp, U. Warshow, D. Hegazy et al., “Consistent beneficial effects of killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor 2Dl3 and group 1 human leukocyte antigen-c following exposure to hepatitis c virus,” Hepatology, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 1168–1175, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  142. J. R. Vidal-Castiñeira, A. López-Vázquez, R. Díaz-Peña et al., “Effect of killer immunoglobulin-like receptors in the response to combined treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection,” Journal of Virology, vol. 84, no. 1, pp. 475–481, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  143. L. Fadda, G. Borhis, P. Ahmed et al., “Peptide antagonism as a mechanism for NK cell activation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 107, no. 22, pp. 10160–10165, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  144. A. K. Moesta, P. J. Norman, M. Yawata, N. Yawata, M. Gleimer, and P. Parham, “Synergistic polymorphism at two positions distal to the ligand-binding site makes KIR2DL2 a stronger receptor for HLA-C Than KIR2DL3,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 180, no. 6, pp. 3969–3979, 2008. View at Scopus
  145. D. Schulte, M. Vogel, B. Langhans et al., “The HLA-ER/HLA-ER genotype affects the natural course of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and is associated with HLA-E-Restricted recognition of an HCV-Derived peptide by interferon-γ-secreting human CD8+ T cells,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 200, no. 9, pp. 1397–1401, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  146. R. K. Strong, M. A. Holmes, P. Li, L. Braun, N. Lee, and D. E. Geraghty, “HLA-E allelic variants: correlating differential expression, peptide affinities, crystal structures, and thermal stabilities,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 278, no. 7, pp. 5082–5090, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  147. S. M. McKiernan, R. Hagan, M. Curry et al., “Distinct MHC class I and II alleles are associated with hepatitis C viral clearance, originating from a single source,” Hepatology, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 108–114, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  148. C. Neumann-Haefelin, S. McKiernan, S. Ward et al., “Dominant influence of an HLA-B27 restricted CD8+ T cell response in mediating HCV clearance and evolution,” Hepatology, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 563–572, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  149. R. Sawhney and K. Visvanathan, “Polymorphisms of toll-like receptors and their pathways in viral hepatitis,” Antiviral Therapy, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 443–458, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  150. S. Knapp, B. J. W. Hennig, A. J. Frodsham et al., “Interleukin-10 promoter polymorphisms and the outcome of hepatitis C virus infection,” Immunogenetics, vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 362–369, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  151. A. Mangia, R. Santoro, M. Piattelli et al., “IL-10 haplotypes as possible predictors of spontaneous clearance of HCV infection,” Cytokine, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 103–109, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  152. T. Kimura, T. Saito, M. Yoshimura et al., “Association of transforming growth factor-β1 functional polymorphisms with natural clearance of hepatitis C virus,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 193, no. 10, pp. 1371–1374, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus