MicroRNAs in Gene Regulation: When the Smallest Governs It All

Ouellet, Dominique L.; Perron, Marjorie P.; Gobeil, Lise-Andrée; Plante, Pierre; Provost, Patrick

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/JBB/2006/69616

BioMed Research International

On this page

Abstract References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

RNA Interference

View this Special Issue

Review Article | Open Access

Volume 2006 | Article ID 069616 | https://doi.org/10.1155/JBB/2006/69616

MicroRNAs in Gene Regulation: When the Smallest Governs It All

Dominique L. Ouellet,¹Marjorie P. Perron,²Lise-Andrée Gobeil,²Pierre Plante,²and Patrick Provost²

Received30 Jan 2006

Accepted17 Apr 2006

Published02 Jul 2006

Abstract

Encoded by the genome of most eukaryotes examined so far, microRNAs (miRNAs) are small ~21-nucleotide (nt) noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) derived from a biosynthetic cascade involving sequential processing steps executed by the ribonucleases (RNases) III Drosha and Dicer. Following their recent identification, miRNAs have rapidly taken the center stage as key regulators of gene expression. In this review, we will summarize our current knowledge of the miRNA biosynthetic pathway and its protein components, as well as the processes it regulates via miRNAs, which are known to exert a variety of biological functions in eukaryotes. Although the relative importance of miRNAs remains to be fully appreciated, deregulated protein expression resulting from either dysfunctional miRNA biogenesis or abnormal miRNA-based gene regulation may represent a key etiologic factor in several, as yet unidentified, diseases. Hence is our need to better understand the complexity of the basic mechanisms underlying miRNA biogenesis and function.

References

C Napoli, C Lemieux, and R Jorgensen, “Introduction of a chimeric chalcone synthase gene into petunia results in reversible co-suppression of homologous genes in trans,” Plant Cell, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 279–289, 1990.
View at: Google Scholar
R Jorgensen, “Altered gene expression in plants due to trans interactions between homologous genes,” Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 340–344, 1990.
View at: Google Scholar
R C Lee, R L Feinbaum, and V Ambros, “The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14,” Cell, vol. 75, no. 5, pp. 843–854, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar
B Wightman, T R Burglin, J Gatto, P Arasu, and G Ruvkun, “Negative regulatory sequences in the lin-14 $3'$ -untranslated region are necessary to generate a temporal switch during Caenorhabditis elegans development,” Genes and Development, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 1813–1824, 1991.
View at: Google Scholar
B Wightman, I Ha, and G Ruvkun, “Posttranscriptional regulation of the heterochronic gene lin-14 by lin-4 mediates temporal pattern formation in C. elegans,” Cell, vol. 75, no. 5, pp. 855–862, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar
A Fire, S Xu, M K Montgomery, S A Kostas, S E Driver, and C C Mello, “Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans,” Nature, vol. 391, no. 6669, pp. 806–811, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
A J Hamilton and D C Baulcombe, “A species of small antisense RNA in posttranscriptional gene silencing in plants,” Science, vol. 286, no. 5441, pp. 950–952, 1999.
View at: Google Scholar
P D Zamore, T Tuschl, P A Sharp, and D P Bartel, “RNAi: double-stranded RNA directs the ATP-dependent cleavage of mRNA at 21 to 23 nucleotide intervals,” Cell, vol. 101, no. 1, pp. 25–33, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
S M Elbashir, W Lendeckel, and T Tuschl, “RNA interference is mediated by 21- and 22-nucleotide RNAs,” Genes and Development, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 188–200, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
M Lagos-Quintana, R Rauhut, W Lendeckel, and T Tuschl, “Identification of novel genes coding for small expressed RNAs,” Science, vol. 294, no. 5543, pp. 853–858, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
N C Lau, L P Lim, E G Weinstein, and D P Bartel, “An abundant class of tiny RNAs with probable regulatory roles in Caenorhabditis elegans,” Science, vol. 294, no. 5543, pp. 858–862, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
R C Lee and V Ambros, “An extensive class of small RNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans,” Science, vol. 294, no. 5543, pp. 862–864, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
A M Denli, B BJ Tops, R HA Plasterk, R F Ketting, and G J Hannon, “Processing of primary microRNAs by the Microprocessor complex,” Nature, vol. 432, no. 7014, pp. 231–235, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
R I Gregory, K-P Yan, G Amuthan et al., “The Microprocessor complex mediates the genesis of microRNAs,” Nature, vol. 432, no. 7014, pp. 235–240, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J Han, Y Lee, K-H Yeom, Y-K Kim, H Jin, and V N Kim, “The Drosha-DGCR8 complex in primary microRNA processing,” Genes and Development, vol. 18, no. 24, pp. 3016–3027, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
M Landthaler, A Yalcin, and T Tuschl, “The human DiGeorge syndrome critical region gene 8 and its D. melanogaster homolog are required for miRNA biogenesis,” Current Biology, vol. 14, no. 23, pp. 2162–2167, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
X Cai, C H Hagedorn, and B R Cullen, “Human microRNAs are processed from capped, polyadenylated transcripts that can also function as mRNAs,” RNA, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 1957–1966, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Lee, C Ahn, J Han et al., “The nuclear RNase III Drosha initiates microRNA processing,” Nature, vol. 425, no. 6956, pp. 415–419, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Lee, K Jeon, J-T Lee, S Kim, and V N Kim, “MicroRNA maturation: stepwise processing and subcellular localization,” EMBO Journal, vol. 21, no. 17, pp. 4663–4670, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
M T Bohnsack, K Czaplinski, and D Görlich, “Exportin 5 is a RanGTP-dependent dsRNA-binding protein that mediates nuclear export of pre-miRNAs,” RNA, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 185–191, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A M Brownawell and I G Macara, “Exportin-5, a novel karyopherin, mediates nuclear export of double-stranded RNA binding proteins,” Journal of Cell Biology, vol. 156, no. 1, pp. 53–64, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
E Lund, S Güttinger, A Calado, J E Dahlberg, and U Kutay, “Nuclear export of microRNA precursors,” Science, vol. 303, no. 5654, pp. 95–98, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
R Yi, Y Qin, I G Macara, and B R Cullen, “Exportin-5 mediates the nuclear export of pre-microRNAs and short hairpin RNAs,” Genes and Development, vol. 17, no. 24, pp. 3011–3016, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
R I Gregory, T P Chendrimada, N Cooch, and R Shiekhattar, “Human RISC couples microRNA biogenesis and posttranscriptional gene silencing,” Cell, vol. 123, no. 4, pp. 631–640, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
D P Bartel, “MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function,” Cell, vol. 116, no. 2, pp. 281–297, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Lee, M Kim, J Han et al., “MicroRNA genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase II,” EMBO Journal, vol. 23, no. 20, pp. 4051–4060, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A Rodriguez, S Griffiths-Jones, J L Ashurst, and A Bradley, “Identification of mammalian microRNA host genes and transcription units,” Genome Research, vol. 14, no. 10A, pp. 1902–1910, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
S-Y Ying and S-L Lin, “Intronic microRNAs,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 326, no. 3, pp. 515–520, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
M Lagos-Quintana, R Rauhut, J Meyer, A Borkhardt, and T Tuschl, “New microRNAs from mouse and human,” RNA, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 175–179, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
H Wu, H Xu, L J Miraglia, and S T Crooke, “Human RNase III is a 160-kDa protein involved in preribosomal RNA processing,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 275, no. 47, pp. 36957–36965, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
V Filippov, V Solovyev, M Filippova, and S S Gill, “A novel type of RNase III family proteins in eukaryotes,” Gene, vol. 245, no. 1, pp. 213–221, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
K R Fortin, R H Nicholson, and A W Nicholson, “Mouse ribonuclease III. cDNA structure, expression analysis, and chromosomal location,” BMC Genomics, vol. 3, no. 1, p. 26, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
E Basyuk, F Suavet, A Doglio, R Bordonné, and E Bertrand, “Human let-7 stem-loop precursors harbor features of RNase III cleavage products,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 31, no. 22, pp. 6593–6597, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Zeng and B R Cullen, “Sequence requirements for micro RNA processing and function in human cells,” RNA, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 112–123, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
H Zhang, F A Kolb, L Jaskiewicz, E Westhof, and W Filipowicz, “Single processing center models for human Dicer and bacterial RNase III,” Cell, vol. 118, no. 1, pp. 57–68, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A Arvand and C T Denny, “Biology of EWS/ETS fusions in Ewing's family tumors,” Oncogene, vol. 20, no. 40, pp. 5747–5754, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
H Yamagishi and D Srivastava, “Unraveling the genetic and developmental mysteries of 22q11 deletion syndrome,” Trends in Molecular Medicine, vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 383–389, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
A Shiohama, T Sasaki, S Noda, S Minoshima, and N Shimizu, “Molecular cloning and expression analysis of a novel gene DGCR8 located in the DiGeorge syndrome chromosomal region,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 304, no. 1, pp. 184–190, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
R Yi, B P Doehle, Y Qin, I G Macara, and B R Cullen, “Overexpression of Exportin 5 enhances RNA interference mediated by short hairpin RNAs and microRNAs,” RNA, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 220–226, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Zeng and B R Cullen, “Structural requirements for pre-microRNA binding and nuclear export by Exportin 5,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 32, no. 16, pp. 4776–4785, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
C Gwizdek, B Ossareh-Nazari, A M Brownawell et al., “Exportin-5 mediates nuclear export of minihelix-containing RNAs,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 278, no. 8, pp. 5505–5508, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
E Bernstein, A A Caudy, S M Hammond, and G J Hannon, “Role for a bidentate ribonuclease in the initiation step of RNA interference,” Nature, vol. 409, no. 6818, pp. 363–366, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
A Grishok, A E Pasquinelli, D Conte et al., “Genes and mechanisms related to RNA interference regulate expression of the small temporal RNAs that control C. elegans developmental timing,” Cell, vol. 106, no. 1, pp. 23–34, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
S W Knight and B L Bass, “A role for the RNase III enzyme DCR-1 in RNA interference and germ line development in Caenorhabditis elegans,” Science, vol. 293, no. 5538, pp. 2269–2271, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
G Hutvágner, J McLachlan, A E Pasquinelli, É Bálint, T Tuschl, and P D Zamore, “A cellular function for the RNA-interference enzyme dicer in the maturation of the let-7 small temporal RNA,” Science, vol. 293, no. 5531, pp. 834–838, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
P Provost, B Samuelsson, and O Radmark, “Interaction of 5-lipoxygenase with cellular proteins,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 96, no. 5, pp. 1881–1885, 1999.
View at: Google Scholar
P Provost, D Dishart, J Doucet, D Frendewey, B Samuelsson, and O Radmark, “Ribonuclease activity and RNA binding of recombinant human Dicer,” EMBO Journal, vol. 21, no. 21, pp. 5864–5874, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
H Zhang, F A Kolb, V Brondani, E Billy, and W Filipowicz, “Human Dicer preferentially cleaves dsRNAs at their termini without a requirement for ATP,” EMBO Journal, vol. 21, no. 21, pp. 5875–5885, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
E Billy, V Brondani, H Zhang, U Müller, and W Filipowicz, “Specific interference with gene expression induced by long, double-stranded RNA in mouse embryonal teratocarcinoma cell lines,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 98, no. 25, pp. 14428–14433, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
E Bernstein, S Y Kim, M A Carmell et al., “Dicer is essential for mouse development,” Nature Genetics, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 215–217, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
W J Yang, D D Yang, S Na, G E Sandusky, Q Zhang, and G Zhao, “Dicer is required for embryonic angiogenesis during mouse development,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 280, no. 10, pp. 9330–9335, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
C Kanellopoulou, S A Muljo, A L Kung et al., “Dicer-deficient mouse embryonic stem cells are defective in differentiation and centromeric silencing,” Genes and Development, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 489–501, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
E P Murchison, J F Partridge, O H Tam, S Cheloufi, and G J Hannon, “Characterization of Dicer-deficient murine embryonic stem cells,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 102, no. 34, pp. 12135–12140, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
S M Hammond, S Boettcher, A A Caudy, R Kobayashi, and G J Hannon, “Argonaute2, a link between genetic and biochemical analyses of RNAi,” Science, vol. 293, no. 5532, pp. 1146–1150, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
A Ishizuka, M C Siomi, and H Siomi, “A Drosophila fragile X protein interacts with components of RNAi and ribosomal proteins,” Genes and Development, vol. 16, no. 19, pp. 2497–2508, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
T P Chendrimada, R I Gregory, E Kumaraswamy et al., “TRBP recruits the Dicer complex to Ago2 for microRNA processing and gene silencing,” Nature, vol. 436, no. 7051, pp. 740–744, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
A D Haase, L Jaskiewicz, H Zhang et al., “TRBP, a regulator of cellular PKR and HIV-1 virus expression, interacts with Dicer and functions in RNA silencing,” EMBO Reports, vol. 6, no. 10, pp. 961–967, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Lee, I Hur, S-Y Park, Y-K Kim, M R Suh, and V N Kim, “The role of PACT in the RNA silencing pathway,” EMBO Journal, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 522–532, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
A Gatignol, A Buckler-White, B Berkhout, and K-T Jeang, “Characterization of a human TAR RNA-binding protein that activates the HIV-1 LTR,” Science, vol. 251, no. 5001, pp. 1597–1600, 1991.
View at: Google Scholar
M Duarte, K Graham, A Daher et al., “Characterization of TRBP1 and TRBP2: stable stem-loop structure at the $5'$ end of TRBP2 mRNA resembles HIV-1 TAR and is not found in its processed pseudogene,” Journal of Biomedical Science, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 494–506, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
A Daher, M Longuet, D Dorin et al., “Two dimerization domains in the trans-activation response RNA-binding protein (TRBP) individually reverse the protein kinase R inhibition of HIV-1 long terminal repeat expression,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 276, no. 36, pp. 33899–33905, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
A Gatignol, M Duarte, L Daviet, Y-N Chang, and K-T Jeang, “Sequential steps in Tat trans-activation of HIV-1 mediated through cellular DNA, RNA, and protein binding factors,” Gene Expression, vol. 5, no. 4-5, pp. 217–228, 1996.
View at: Google Scholar
M Donzeau, E-L Winnacker, and M Meisterernst, “Specific repression of Tax trans-activation by TAR RNA-binding protein TRBP,” Journal of Virology, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 2628–2635, 1997.
View at: Google Scholar
H Park, M V Davies, J O Langland et al., “TAR RNA-binding protein is an inhibitor of the interferon-induced protein kinase PKR,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 91, no. 11, pp. 4713–4717, 1994.
View at: Google Scholar
K Förstemann, Y Tomari, T Du et al., “Normal microRNA maturation and germ-line stem cell maintenance requires Loquacious, a double-stranded RNA-binding domain protein,” PLoS Biology, vol. 3, no. 7, p. e236, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
K Saito, A Ishizuka, H Siomi, and M C Siomi, “Processing of pre-microRNAs by the Dicer-1-Loquacious complex in Drosophila cells,” PLoS Biology, vol. 3, no. 7, p. e235, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
Q Liu, T A Rand, S Kalidas et al., “R2D2, a bridge between the initiation and effector steps of the Drosophila RNAi pathway,” Science, vol. 301, no. 5641, pp. 1921–1925, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
A Grishok, H Tabara, and C C Mello, “Genetic requirements for inheritance of RNAi in C. elegans,” Science, vol. 287, no. 5462, pp. 2494–2497, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
H Tabara, E Yigit, H Siomi, and C C Mello, “The dsRNA binding protein RDE-4 interacts with RDE-1, DCR-1, and a DExH-box helicase to direct RNAi in C. elegans,” Cell, vol. 109, no. 7, pp. 861–871, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
D S Schwarz, G Hutvágner, T Du, Z Xu, N Aronin, and P D Zamore, “Asymmetry in the assembly of the RNAi enzyme complex,” Cell, vol. 115, no. 2, pp. 199–208, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Tomari, C Matranga, B Haley, N Martinez, and P D Zamore, “A protein sensor for siRNA asymmetry,” Science, vol. 306, no. 5700, pp. 1377–1380, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J L Pellino and E J Sontheimer, “R2D2 leads the silencing trigger to mRNA's death star,” Cell, vol. 115, no. 2, pp. 132–133, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
L P Lim, N C Lau, P Garrett-Engele et al., “Microarray analysis shows that some microRNAs downregulate large numbers of target mRNAs,” Nature, vol. 433, no. 7027, pp. 769–773, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
S Yekta, I-H Shih, and D P Bartel, “MicroRNA-directed cleavage of HOXB8 mRNA,” Science, vol. 304, no. 5670, pp. 594–596, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
S Bagga, J Bracht, S Hunter et al., “Regulation by let-7 and lin-4 miRNAs results in target mRNA degradation,” Cell, vol. 122, no. 4, pp. 553–563, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
S M Hammond, E Bernstein, D Beach, and G J Hannon, “An RNA-directed nuclease mediates post-transcriptional gene silencing in Drosophila cells,” Nature, vol. 404, no. 6775, pp. 293–296, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
A Nykänen, B Haley, and P D Zamore, “ATP requirements and small interfering RNA structure in the RNA interference pathway,” Cell, vol. 107, no. 3, pp. 309–321, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
J W Pham, J L Pellino, Y S Lee, R W Carthew, and E J Sontheimer, “A Dicer-2-dependent 80S complex cleaves targeted mRNAs during RNAi in Drosophila,” Cell, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 83–94, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
C Matranga, Y Tomari, C Shin, D P Bartel, and P D Zamore, “Passenger-strand cleavage facilitates assembly of siRNA into Ago2-containing RNAi enzyme complexes,” Cell, vol. 123, no. 4, pp. 607–620, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
T A Rand, S Petersen, F Du, and X Wang, “Argonaute2 cleaves the anti-guide strand of siRNA during RISC activation,” Cell, vol. 123, no. 4, pp. 621–629, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
Z Mourelatos, J Dostie, S Paushkin et al., “miRNPs: a novel class of ribonucleoproteins containing numerous microRNAs,” Genes and Development, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 720–728, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
J Liu, M A Valencia-Sanchez, G J Hannon, and R Parker, “MicroRNA-dependent localization of targeted mRNAs to mammalian P-bodies,” Nature Cell Biology, vol. 7, no. 7, pp. 719–723, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
D Teixeira, U Sheth, MA Valencia-Sanchez, M Brengues, and R Parker, “Processing bodies require RNA for assembly and contain nontranslating mRNAs,” RNA, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 371–382, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
T Eystathioy, E KL Chan, S A Tenenbaum, J D Keene, K Griffith, and M J Fritzler, “A phosphorylated cytoplasmic autoantigen, GW182, associates with a unique population of human mRNAs within novel cytoplasmic speckles,” Molecular Biology of the Cell, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1338–1351, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
T Eystathioy, A Jakymiw, E KL Chan, B Séraphin, N Cougot, and M J Fritzler, “The GW182 protein colocalizes with mRNA degradation associated proteins hDcp1 and hLSm4 in cytoplasmic GW bodies,” RNA, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 1171–1173, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
J Liu, F V Rivas, J Wohlschlegel, J R III Yates, R Parker, and G J Hannon, “A role for the P-body component GW182 in microRNA function,” Nature Cell Biology, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 1161–1166, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
A Jakymiw, S Lian, T Eystathioy et al., “Disruption of GW bodies impairs mammalian RNA interference,” Nature Cell Biology, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 1167–1174, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
G B Robb, K M Brown, J Khurana, and T M Rana, “Specific and potent RNAi in the nucleus of human cells,” Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 133–137, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
M-A Langlois, C Boniface, G Wang et al., “Cytoplasmic and nuclear retained DMPK mRNAs are targets for RNA interference in myotonic dystrophy cells,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 280, no. 17, pp. 16949–16954, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
T A Volpe, C Kidner, I M Hall, G Teng, S IS Grewal, and R A Martienssen, “Regulation of heterochromatic silencing and histone H3 lysine-9 methylation by RNAi,” Science, vol. 297, no. 5588, pp. 1833–1837, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Kataoka, M Takeichi, and T Uemura, “Developmental roles and molecular characterization of a Drosophila homologue of Arabidopsis Argonaute1, the founder of a novel gene superfamily,” Genes to Cells, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 313–325, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
L Cerutti, N Mian, and A Bateman, “Domains in gene silencing and cell differentiation proteins: the novel PAZ domain and redefinition of the Piwi domain,” Trends in Biochemical Sciences, vol. 25, no. 10, pp. 481–482, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
T Sasaki, A Shiohama, S Minoshima, and N Shimizu, “Identification of eight members of the Argonaute family in the human genome small star, filled,” Genomics, vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 323–330, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
G Meister, M Landthaler, A Patkaniowska, Y Dorsett, G Teng, and T Tuschl, “Human Argonaute2 mediates RNA cleavage targeted by miRNAs and siRNAs,” Molecular Cell, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 185–197, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J Liu, M A Carmell, F V Rivas et al., “Argonaute2 is the catalytic engine of mammalian RNAi,” Science, vol. 305, no. 5689, pp. 1437–1441, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A Verdel, S Jia, S Gerber et al., “RNAi-mediated targeting of heterochromatin by the RITS complex,” Science, vol. 303, no. 5658, pp. 672–676, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
M A Carmell, Z Xuan, M Q Zhang, and G J Hannon, “The Argonaute family: tentacles that reach into RNAi, developmental control, stem cell maintenance, and tumorigenesis,” Genes and Development, vol. 16, no. 21, pp. 2733–2742, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
K S Yan, S Yan, A Farooq, A Han, L Zeng, and M-M Zhou, “Structure and conserved RNA binding of the PAZ domain,” Nature, vol. 426, no. 6965, pp. 468–474, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
A Lingel, B Simon, E Izaurralde, and M Sattler, “Nucleic acid $3'$ -end recognition by the Argonaute2 PAZ domain,” Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 576–577, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J-J Song, J Liu, N H Tolia et al., “The crystal structure of the Argonaute2 PAZ domain reveals an RNA binding motif in RNAi effector complexes,” Nature Structural Biology, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 1026–1032, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
A Lingel, B Simon, E Izaurralde, and M Sattler, “Structure and nucleic-acid binding of the Drosophila Argonaute 2 PAZ domain,” Nature, vol. 426, no. 6965, pp. 465–469, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
J-J Song, S K Smith, G J Hannon, and L Joshua-Tor, “Crystal structure of Argonaute and its implications for RISC slicer activity,” Science, vol. 305, no. 5689, pp. 1434–1437, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J S Parker, S M Roe, and D Barford, “Crystal structure of a PIWI protein suggests mechanisms for siRNA recognition and slicer activity,” EMBO Journal, vol. 23, no. 24, pp. 4727–4737, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J-B Ma, Y-R Yuan, G Meister, Y Pei, T Tuschl, and D J Patel, “Structural basis for $5'$ -end-specific recognition of guide RNA by the A. fulgidus Piwi protein,” Nature, vol. 434, no. 7033, pp. 666–670, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
J S Parker, S M Roe, and D Barford, “Structural insights into mRNA recognition from a PIWI domain-siRNA guide complex,” Nature, vol. 434, no. 7033, pp. 663–666, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
D S Schwarz, Y Tomari, and P D Zamore, “The RNA-induced silencing complex is a ${\text{Mg}}^{2 + }$ -dependent endonuclease,” Current Biology, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 787–791, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J Mahillon and M Chandler, “Insertion sequences,” Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 725–774, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
F V Rivas, N H Tolia, J-J Song et al., “Purified Argonaute2 and an siRNA form recombinant human RISC,” Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 340–349, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
S M Elbashir, J Martinez, A Patkaniowska, W Lendeckel, and T Tuschl, “Functional anatomy of siRNAs for mediating efficient RNAi in Drosophila melanogaster embryo lysate,” EMBO Journal, vol. 20, no. 23, pp. 6877–6888, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
R S Pillai, C G Artus, and W Filipowicz, “Tethering of human Ago proteins to mRNA mimics the miRNA-mediated repression of protein synthesis,” RNA, vol. 10, no. 10, pp. 1518–1525, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
R S Pillai, S N Bhattacharyya, C G Artus et al., “Inhibition of translational initiation by let-7 MicroRNA in human cells,” Science, vol. 309, no. 5740, pp. 1573–1576, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
W T O'Donnell and S T Warren, “A decade of molecular studies of fragile X syndrome,” Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol. 25, pp. 315–338, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
B Bardoni and J-L Mandel, “Advances in understanding of fragile X pathogenesis and FMRP function, and in identification of X linked mental retardation genes,” Current Opinion in Genetics and Development, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 284–293, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
H Siomi, M C Siomi, R L Nussbaum, and G Dreyfuss, “The protein product of the fragile X gene, FMR1, has characteristics of an RNA-binding protein,” Cell, vol. 74, no. 2, pp. 291–298, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar
C Verhelj, C E Bakker, E de Graaff et al., “Characterization and localization of the FMR-1 gene product associated with fragile X syndrome,” Nature, vol. 363, no. 6431, pp. 722–724, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar
B Laggerbauer, D Ostareck, E-M Keidel, A Ostareck-Lederer, and U Fischer, “Evidence that fragile X mental retardation protein is a negative regulator of translation,” Human Molecular Genetics, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 329–338, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
Z Li, Y Zhang, L Ku, K D Wilkinson, S T Warren, and Y Feng, “The fragile X mental retardation protein inhibits translation via interacting with mRNA,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 29, no. 11, pp. 2276–2283, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
R Mazroui, M E Hout, S Tremblay, C Fillion, Y Labelle, and E W Khandjian, “Trapping of messenger RNA by Fragile X Mental Retardation protein into cytoplasmic granules induces translation repression,” Human Molecular Genetics, vol. 11, no. 24, pp. 3007–3017, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
A A Caudy, M Myers, G J Hannon, and S M Hammond, “Fragile X-related protein and VIG associate with the RNA interference machinery,” Genes and Development, vol. 16, no. 19, pp. 2491–2496, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
P Jin, D C Zarnescu, S Ceman et al., “Biochemical and genetic interaction between the fragile X mental retardation protein and the microRNA pathway,” Nature Neuroscience, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 113–117, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
I Plante, L Davidovic, D L Ouellet et al., “Dicer-derived microRNAs are utilized by the fragile X mental retardation protein for assembly on target RNAs,” Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, vol. 2006, Article ID 64347, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
J H Heaton, W M Dlakic, M Dlakic, and T D Gelehrter, “Identification and cDNA cloning of a novel RNA-binding protein that Interacts with the cyclic nucleotide-responsive sequence in the Type-1 plasminogen activator inhibitor mRNA,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 276, no. 5, pp. 3341–3347, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
Q Jing, S Huang, S Guth et al., “Involvement of microRNA in AU-rich element-mediated mRNA instability,” Cell, vol. 120, no. 5, pp. 623–634, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
A A Caudy, R F Ketting, S M Hammond et al., “A micrococcal nuclease homologue in RNAi effector complexes,” Nature, vol. 425, no. 6956, pp. 411–414, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
J Martinez and T Tuschl, “RISC is a $5'$ phosphomonoester-producing RNA endonuclease,” Genes and Development, vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 975–980, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
K K Reddi, “Mode of action of micrococcal phosphodiesterase,” Nature, vol. 187, pp. 74–75, 1960.
View at: Google Scholar
B L Bass, “RNA editing by adenosine deaminases that act on RNA,” Annual Review of Biochemistry, vol. 71, pp. 817–846, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
A DJ Scadden, “The RISC subunit Tudor-SN binds to hyper-edited double-stranded RNA and promotes its cleavage,” Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 489–496, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
W Yang, T P Chendrimada, Q Wang et al., “Modulation of microRNA processing and expression through RNA editing by ADAR deaminases,” Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 13–21, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
D J Luciano, H Mirsky, N J Vendetti, and S Maas, “RNA editing of a miRNA precursor,” RNA, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 1174–1177, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
S W Knight and B L Bass, “The role of RNA editing by ADARs in RNAi,” Molecular Cell, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 809–817, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
A DJ Scadden and C WJ Smith, “RNAi is antagonized by A $\to$ I hyper-editing,” EMBO Reports, vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 1107–1111, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
A DJ Scadden and M A O'Connell, “Cleavage of dsRNAs hyper-edited by ADARs occurs at preferred editing sites,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 33, no. 18, pp. 5954–5964, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
P Provost, R A Silverstein, D Dishart et al., “Dicer is required for chromosome segregation and gene silencing in fission yeast cells,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 99, no. 26, pp. 16648–16653, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
B J Reinhart and D P Bartel, “Small RNAs correspond to centromere heterochromatic repeats,” Science, vol. 297, no. 5588, p. 1831, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
K I Noma, T Sugiyama, H Cam et al., “RITS acts in cis to promote RNA interference-mediated transcriptional and post-transcriptional silencing,” Nature Genetics, vol. 36, no. 11, pp. 1174–1180, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
V J Petrie, J D Wuitschick, C D Givens, A M Kosinski, and J F Partridge, “RNA interference (RNAi)-dependent and RNAi-independent association of the Chp1 chromodomain protein with distinct heterochromatic loci in fission yeast,” Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 2331–2346, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
K Ekwall, E R Nimmo, J P Javerzat et al., “Mutations in the fission yeast silencing factors clr4+ and rik1+ disrupt the localisation of the chromo domain protein Swi6p and impair centromere function,” Journal of Cell Science, vol. 109, no. 11, pp. 2637–2648, 1996.
View at: Google Scholar
V Ambros, B Bartel, D P Bartel et al., “A uniform system for microRNA annotation,” RNA, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 277–279, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
U Ohler, S Yekta, L P Lim, D P Bartel, and C B Burge, “Patterns of flanking sequence conservation and a characteristic upstream motif for microRNA gene identification,” RNA, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 1309–1322, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
S Griffiths-Jones, R J Grocock, S van Dongen, A Bateman, and A J Enright, “miRBase: microRNA sequences, targets and gene nomenclature,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 34, pp. D140–D144, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
S Griffiths-Jones, “The microRNA Registry,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 32, pp. D109–D111, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
M C Vella, K Reinert, and F J Slack, “Architecture of a validated microRNA: target interaction,” Chemistry and Biology, vol. 11, no. 12, pp. 1619–1623, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
B P Lewis, C B Burge, and D P Bartel, “Conserved seed pairing, often flanked by adenosines, indicates that thousands of human genes are microRNA targets,” Cell, vol. 120, no. 1, pp. 15–20, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
X Xie, J Lu, E J Kulbokas et al., “Systematic discovery of regulatory motifs in human promoters and $3'$ UTRs by comparison of several mammals,” Nature, vol. 434, no. 7031, pp. 338–345, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
B P Lewis, I H Shih, M W Jones-Rhoades, D P Bartel, and C B Burge, “Prediction of mammalian microRNA targets,” Cell, vol. 115, no. 7, pp. 787–798, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
B John, A J Enright, A Aravin, T Tuschl, C Sander, and D S Marks, “Human microRNA targets,” PLoS Biology, vol. 2, no. 11, p. e363, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
M Kiriakidou, P T Nelson, A Kouranov et al., “A combined computational-experimental approach predicts human microRNA targets,” Genes and Development, vol. 18, no. 10, pp. 1165–1178, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
M C Vella, E Y Choi, S Y Lin, K Reinert, and F J Slack, “The C. elegans microRNA let-7 binds to imperfect let-7 complementary sites from the lin-41 $3'$ UTR,” Genes and Development, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 132–137, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
C Z Chen, L Li, H F Lodish, and D P Bartel, “MicroRNAs modulate hematopoietic lineage differentiation,” Science, vol. 303, no. 5654, pp. 83–86, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
E G Moss, R C Lee, and V Ambros, “The cold shock domain protein LIN-28 controls developmental timing in C. elegans and is regulated by the lin-4 RNA,” Cell, vol. 88, no. 5, pp. 637–646, 1997.
View at: Google Scholar
B J Reinhart, F J Slack, M Basson et al., “The 21-nucleotide let-7 RNA regulates developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans,” Nature, vol. 403, no. 6772, pp. 901–906, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
A E Pasquinelli, B J Reinhart, F J Slack et al., “Conservation of the sequence and temporal expression of let-7 heterochronic regulatory RNA,” Nature, vol. 408, no. 6808, pp. 86–89, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
F J Slack, M Basson, Z Liu, V Ambros, H R Horvitz, and G Ruvkun, “The lin-41 RBCC gene acts in the C. elegans heterochronic pathway between the let-7 regulatory RNA and the LIN-29 transcription factor,” Molecular Cell, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 659–669, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
H Großhans, T Johnson, K L Reinert, M Gerstein, and F J Slack, “The temporal patterning microRNA let-7 regulates several transcription factors at the larval to adult transition in C. elegans,” Developmental Cell, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 321–330, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
S M Johnson, H Grosshans, J Shingara et al., “RAS is regulated by the let-7 microRNA family,” Cell, vol. 120, no. 5, pp. 635–647, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
A L Abbott, E Alvarez-Saavedra, E A Miska et al., “The let-7 MicroRNA family members mir-48, mir-84, and mir-241 function together to regulate developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans,” Developmental Cell, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 403–414, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
D R Hipfner, K Weigmann, and S M Cohen, “The bantam gene regulates Drosophila growth,” Genetics, vol. 161, no. 4, pp. 1527–1537, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
D Leaman, P Y Chen, J Fak et al., “Antisense-mediated depletion reveals essential and specific functions of microRNAs in Drosophila development,” Cell, vol. 121, no. 7, pp. 1097–1108, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
J A Chan, A M Krichevsky, and K S Kosik, “MicroRNA-21 is an antiapoptotic factor in human glioblastoma cells,” Cancer Research, vol. 65, no. 14, pp. 6029–6033, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
A Cimmino, G A Calin, M Fabbri et al., “miR-15 and miR-16 induce apoptosis by targeting BCL2,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 102, no. 39, pp. 13944–13949, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
G A Calin, C D Dumitru, M Shimizu et al., “Frequent deletions and down-regulation of micro-RNA genes miR15 and miR16 at 13q14 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 99, no. 24, pp. 15524–15529, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
M Z Michael, S M O'Connor, N G van Holst Pellekaan, G P Young, and R J James, “Reduced accumulation of specific microRNAs in colorectal neoplasia,” Molecular Cancer Research, vol. 1, no. 12, pp. 882–891, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
M Metzler, M Wilda, K Busch, S Viehmann, and A Borkhardt, “High expression of precursor microRNA-155/BIC RNA in children with Burkitt lymphoma,” Genes Chromosomes and Cancer, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 167–169, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
L He, J M Thomson, M T Hemann et al., “A microRNA polycistron as a potential human oncogene,” Nature, vol. 435, no. 7043, pp. 828–833, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
C-H Lecellier, P Dunoyer, K Arar et al., “A cellular microRNA mediates antiviral defense in human cells,” Science, vol. 308, no. 5721, pp. 557–560, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
C L Jopling, M Yi, A M Lancaster, S M Lemon, and P Sarnow, “Modulation of hepatitis C virus RNA abundance by a liver-specific MicroRNA,” Science, vol. 309, no. 5740, pp. 1577–1581, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
M Hariharan, V Scaria, B Pillai, and S K Brahmachari, “Targets for human encoded microRNAs in HIV genes,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 337, no. 4, pp. 1214–1218, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
M Boehm and F J Slack, “A developmental timing microRNA and its target regulate life span in C. elegans,” Science, vol. 310, no. 5756, pp. 1954–1957, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
L P Lim, M E Glasner, S Yekta, C B Burge, and D P Bartel, “Vertebrate microRNA genes,” Science, vol. 299, no. 5612, p. 1540, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
W P Kloosterman, E Wienholds, R F Ketting, and R HA Plasterk, “Substrate requirements for let-7 function in the developing zebrafish embryo,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 32, no. 21, pp. 6284–6291, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A J Giraldez, R M Cinalli, M E Glasner et al., “MicroRNAs regulate brain morphogenesis in zebrafish,” Science, vol. 308, no. 5723, pp. 833–838, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
E Wienholds, W P Kloosterman, E Miska et al., “MicroRNA expression in zebrafish embryonic development,” Science, vol. 309, no. 5732, pp. 310–311, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
A A Aboobaker, P Tomancak, N Patel, G M Rubin, and E C Lai, “Drosophila microRNAs exhibit diverse spatial expression patterns during embryonic development,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 102, no. 50, pp. 18017–18022, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
J J Lancman, N C Caruccio, B D Harfe et al., “Analysis of the regulation of lin-41 during chick and mouse limb development,” Developmental Dynamics, vol. 234, no. 4, pp. 948–960, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
B RM Schulman, A Esquela-Kerscher, and F J Slack, “Reciprocal expression of lin-41 and the microRNAs let-7 and mir-125 during mouse embryogenesis,” Developmental Dynamics, vol. 234, no. 4, pp. 1046–1054, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
B D Harfe, M T McManus, J H Mansfield, E Hornstein, and C J Tabin, “The RNaseIII enzyme Dicer is required for morphogenesis but not patterning of the vertebrate limb,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 102, no. 31, pp. 10898–10903, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
K Mochizuki, N A Fine, T Fujisawa, and M A Gorovsky, “Analysis of a piwi-related gene implicates small RNAs in genome rearrangement in tetrahymena,” Cell, vol. 110, no. 6, pp. 689–699, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
T Volpe, V Schramke, G L Hamilton et al., “RNA interference is required for normal centromere function in fission yeast,” Chromosome Research, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 137–146, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
K Ekwall, “The roles of histone modifications and small RNA in centromere function,” Chromosome Research, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 535–542, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
K V Morris, S W-L Chan, S E Jacobsen, and D J Looney, “Small interfering RNA-induced transcriptional gene silencing in human cells,” Science, vol. 305, no. 5688, pp. 1289–1292, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
H Kawasaki and K Taira, “Induction of DNA methylation and gene silencing by short interfering RNAs in human cells,” Nature, vol. 431, no. 7005, pp. 211–217, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J Brennecke, D R Hipfner, A Stark, R B Russell, and S M Cohen, “bantam encodes a developmentally regulated microRNA that controls cell proliferation and regulates the proapoptotic gene hid in Drosophila,” Cell, vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 25–36, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
A M Cheng, M W Byrom, J Shelton, and L P Ford, “Antisense inhibition of human miRNAs and indications for an involvement of miRNA in cell growth and apoptosis,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 1290–1297, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
G A Calin, C Sevignani, C D Dumitru et al., “Human microRNA genes are frequently located at fragile sites and genomic regions involved in cancers,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 101, no. 9, pp. 2999–3004, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
J Kluiver, E Haralambieva, D de Jong et al., “Lack of BIC and microRNA miR-155 expression in primary cases of Burkitt lymphoma,” Genes Chromosomes and Cancer, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 147–153, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Hayashita, H Osada, Y Tatematsu et al., “A polycistronic microRNA cluster, miR-17-92, is overexpressed in human lung cancers and enhances cell proliferation,” Cancer Research, vol. 65, no. 21, pp. 9628–9632, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
K A O'Donnell, E A Wentzel, K I Zeller, C V Dang, and J T Mendell, “c-Myc-regulated microRNAs modulate E2F1 expression,” Nature, vol. 435, no. 7043, pp. 839–843, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
A P Bracken, M Ciro, A Cocito, and K Helin, “E2F target genes: unraveling the biology,” Trends in Biochemical Sciences, vol. 29, no. 8, pp. 409–417, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
G Leone, J DeGregori, R Sears, L Jakoi, and J R Nevins, “Myc and Ras collaborate in inducing accumulation of active cyclin E/Cdk2 and E2F,” Nature, vol. 387, no. 6631, pp. 422–426, 1997.
View at: Google Scholar
P C Fernandez, S R Frank, L Wang et al., “Genomic targets of the human c-Myc protein,” Genes and Development, vol. 17, no. 9, pp. 1115–1129, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
J Takamizawa, H Konishi, K Yanagisawa et al., “Reduced expression of the let-7 microRNAs in human lung cancers in association with shortened postoperative survival,” Cancer Research, vol. 64, no. 11, pp. 3753–3756, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Karube, H Tanaka, H Osada et al., “Reduced expression of Dicer associated with poor prognosis in lung cancer patients,” Cancer Science, vol. 96, no. 2, pp. 111–115, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
M P Perron, V Boissonneault, L-A Gobeil, D L Ouellet, and P Provost, “Regulatory RNAs: future perspectives in diagnosis and personalized therapy,” in Methods in Molecular Biology: Target Discovery and Validation, M. Stoud, Ed., The Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
View at: Google Scholar
J Lu, G Getz, E A Miska et al., “MicroRNA expression profiles classify human cancers,” Nature, vol. 435, no. 7043, pp. 834–838, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
J Jiang, E J Lee, Y Gusev, and T D Schmittgen, “Real-time expression profiling of microRNA precursors in human cancer cell lines,” Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 33, no. 17, pp. 5394–5403, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
D Baulcombe, “RNA silencing in plants,” Nature, vol. 431, no. 7006, pp. 356–363, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
P Provost, C Barat, I Plante, and M J Tremblay, “Human immunodeficiency virus-1 and RNA silencing pathways: a close and multifaceted encounter,” in Methods in Molecular Biology: Target Discovery and Validation, M. Stoud, Ed., The Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
View at: Google Scholar
S Pfeffer, M Zavolan, F A Grässer et al., “Identification of virus-encoded microRNAs,” Science, vol. 304, no. 5671, pp. 734–736, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A J Enright, B John, U Gaul, T Tuschl, C Sander, and D S Marks, “MicroRNA targets in Drosophila,” Genome Biology, vol. 5, no. 1, p. R1, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
X Cai, S Lu, Z Zhang, C M Gonzalez, B Damania, and B R Cullen, “Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus expresses an array of viral microRNAs in latently infected cells,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 102, no. 15, pp. 5570–5575, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
S Omoto, M Ito, Y Tsutsumi et al., “HIV-1 nef suppression by virally encoded microRNA,” Retrovirology, vol. 1, p. 44, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
S Omoto and Y R Fujii, “Regulation of human immunodeficiency virus 1 transcription by nef microRNA,” Journal of General Virology, vol. 86, no. 3, pp. 751–755, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
Y Bennasser, S-Y Le, M Benkirane, and K-T Jeang, “Evidence that HIV-1 encodes an siRNA and a suppressor of RNA silencing,” Immunity, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 607–619, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
C S Sullivan, A T Grundhoff, S Tevethia, J M Pipas, and D Ganem, “SV40-encoded microRNAs regulate viral gene expression and reduce susceptibility to cytotoxic T cells,” Nature, vol. 435, no. 7042, pp. 682–686, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
S Lu and B R Cullen, “Adenovirus VA1 noncoding RNA can inhibit small interfering RNA and microRNA biogenesis,” Journal of Virology, vol. 78, no. 23, pp. 12868–12876, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A Gatignol, S Laine, and G Clerzius, “Dual role of TRBP in HIV replication and RNA interference: viral diversion of a cellular pathway or evasion from antiviral immunity?” Retrovirology, vol. 2, p. 65, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2006 Dominique L. Ouellet et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation Order printed copies

Views

669

Downloads

1110

Citations