PPAR Activation Induces M1 Macrophage Polarization via cPLA₂-COX-2 Inhibition, Activating ROS Production against Leishmania mexicana

Figure 3

TLR4 expression in L. mexicana-infected macrophages. Cells were treated or not with PPAR agonists for 24 h and cPLA₂ antagonist for 1 h before infection. TLR4 expression was analyzed by flow cytometry. LPS (2 h) was used as a positive control of induction. Graph bars are mean ± SEM of three independent experiments, and statistical analysis was performed comparing, for each time, treated versus non-treated macrophages; (*) 𝑃<0.05, (**) 𝑃<0.01, and (***) 𝑃<0.001.