Association of Urban Slum Residency with Infant Mortality and Child Stunting in Low and Middle Income Countries

Table 2

Odds ratios and 95% CIs for infant mortality associated with slum residency after adjusting for covariates.

	Model 1 OR (95% CI)	Model 2 OR (95% CI)	Model 3 OR (95% CI)
Intercept (SE)	−3.55 (0.08)***	−3.71 (0.13)***	−3.75 (0.13)***
Study variables
Level 2 (Cluster)
Nonslum neighborhood	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Slum neighborhood	1.30 (1.17–1.45)***	1.20 (1.07–1.35)**	1.34 (1.15–1.57)***
Level 1 (Child)
Nonslum household	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Slum household	1.25 (1.14–1.37)***	1.07 (0.97–1.19)	1.07 (0.97–1.19)
Covariates
Level 3 (country)
GDP rescale		0.90 (0.85–0.96)**	0.90 (0.85–0.96)**
Level 1 (child)
Household wealth		0.95 (0.93–0.97)***	0.95 (0.93–0.98)***
Maternal education (years)		0.97 (0.96–0.98)***	0.97 (0.96–0.98)***
Maternal height		0.93 (0.90–0.97)***	0.93 (0.90–0.97)***
Maternal height (missing data)		1.13 (1.00–1.27)	1.13 (1.00–1.27)
Antenatal care
No		Ref.	Ref.
1 to 3 visits		0.80 (0.69–0.93)**	0.86 (0.73–1.02)
Four or more visits		0.70 (0.61–0.81)***	0.74 (0.63–0.85)***
Antenatal care (missing)
No		Ref.	Ref.
Yes		1.39 (1.19–1.61)***	1.39 (1.20–1.62)***
Place of delivery
At home and no skilled assistance		Ref.	Ref.
At home with skilled assistance		0.86 (0.72–1.03)	0.87 (0.72–1.04)
At health facility		0.91 (0.82–1.00)	0.91 (0.82–1.00)
Birth order
First born		Ref.	Ref.
2-3 born		0.90 (0.80–0.99)*	0.89 (0.80–0.99)*
4-5 born		1.04 (0.91–1.20)	1.04 (0.91–1.20)
6+ born		1.11 (0.94–1.31)	1.11 (0.94–1.31)
Previous birth interval
19–35 mths		Ref.	Ref.
<19 mths		1.67 (1.48–1.89)***	1.67 (1.48–1.89)***
≥35 mths		0.94 (0.85–1.03)	0.94 (0.85–1.03)
Maternal age at child birth
<20 years		Ref.	Ref.
20–24 years		0.86 (0.77–0.97)*	0.87 (0.77–0.97)*
25–29 years		0.87 (0.77–0.99)*	0.88 (0.77–0.99)*
30–34 years		0.90 (0.78–1.05)	0.91 (0.78–1.05)
≥35 years		1.13 (0.95–1.34)	1.13 (0.95–1.34)
Male child
No		Ref.	Ref.
Yes		1.21 (1.13–1.30)***	1.21 (1.13–1.30)***
Multiple birth
Singleton		Ref.	Ref.
Multiple birth		3.16 (2.75–3.64)***	3.18 (2.76–3.66)***
Duration of residence
≥15 years		Ref.	Ref.
<4 years		0.55 (0.50–0.61)***	0.55 (0.50–0.61)***
5–14 years		0.91 (0.83–0.99)*	0.91 (0.84–0.99)*
Breastfeeding
Delayed		Ref.	Ref.
Early		0.99 (0.91–1.10)	0.99 (0.91–1.10)
Unknown timing		1.21 (1.04–1.39)*	1.21 (1.04–1.39)*
Never breastfed		21.24 (19.07–23.66)***	21.29 (19.11–23.71)***
Interactions
Slum neighborhood*ANC 1 to 3 visits			0.79 (0.63–0.99)*
Slum neighborhood*ANC ≥4 visits			0.84 (0.69–1.03)
Slum neighborhood*household wealth			0.99 (0.95–1.04)
Slum neighborhood*maternal education			1.01 (0.99–1.03)

Note: level 2 and level 3 variables are contextual variables. Level 1 variables are compositional variables.
* 𝑃<0.05, **𝑃<0.01, ***𝑃<0.001.