Association of Urban Slum Residency with Infant Mortality and Child Stunting in Low and Middle Income Countries

Table 3

Odds ratios and 95% CIs for child stunting associated with slum residency after adjusting for covariates.

	Model 1 OR (95% CI)	Model 2 OR (95% CI)	Model 3 OR (95% CI)
Intercept (SE)	−1.25 (0.08)***	−1.21 (0.09)***	−1.19 (0.09)***
Study variables
Level 2 (Cluster)
Nonslum neighborhood	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Slum neighborhood	1.28 (1.20–1.37)***	1.05 (0.98–1.12)	1.04 (0.97–1.10)
Level 1 (Child)
Nonslum household	Ref.	Ref.	Ref.
Slum household	1.50 (1.42–1.58)***	1.13 (1.07–1.19)***	1.13 (1.08–1.20)***
Covariates
Level 3 (country)
GDP rescale		0.91 (0.87–0.96)***	0.91 (0.87–0.96)***
Level 1 (child)
Household wealth		0.91 (0.90–0.92)***	0.91 (0.90–0.92)***
Maternal education (years)		0.96 (0.96–0.96)***	0.96 (0.96–0.96)***
Maternal height		0.70 (0.69–0.71)***	0.70 (0.69–0.71)***
Maternal height (missing data)		1.33 (1.12–1.58)***	1.33 (1.12–1.58)***
Antenatal care
No		Ref.	Ref.
1 to 3 visits		0.88 (0.82–0.95)***	0.86 (0.80–0.93)***
Four or more visits		0.82 (0.76–0.88)***	0.80 (0.75–0.86)***
Antenatal care (missing data)
No		Ref.	Ref.
Yes		0.78 (0.71–0.86)***	0.73 (0.67–0.81)***
Place of delivery
At home and no skilled assistance		Ref.	Ref.
At home with skilled assistance		0.91 (0.83–1.00)	0.92 (0.84–1.00)
At health facility		0.82 (0.78–0.86)***	0.82 (0.78–0.87)***
Birth order
First born		Ref.	Ref.
2-3 born		1.35 (1.28–1.42)***	1.35 (1.28–1.42)***
4-5 born		1.54 (1.43–1.64)***	1.53 (1.43–1.64)***
6+ born		1.77 (1.62–1.93)***	1.76 (1.62–1.92)***
Previous birth interval
19–35 mths		Ref.	Ref.
<19 mths		1.18 (1.10–1.26)***	1.18 (1.10–1.26)***
≥35 mths		0.79 (0.76–0.83)***	0.79 (0.76–0.83)***
Maternal age at child birth
<20 years		Ref.	Ref.
20–24 years		0.82 (0.78–0.86)***	0.82 (0.77–0.86)***
25–29 years		0.72 (0.68–0.77)***	0.72 (0.68–0.77)***
30–34 years		0.66 (0.61–0.71)***	0.66 (0.61–0.71)***
≥35 years		0.62 (0.56–0.67)***	0.61 (0.56–0.67)***
Male child
No		Ref.	Ref.
Yes		1.24 (1.20–1.29)***	1.24 (1.20–1.29)***
Multiple birth
Singleton		Ref.	Ref.
Multiple birth		1.88 (1.67–2.11)***	1.90 (1.70–2.14)***
Duration of residence
≥15 years		Ref.	Ref.
<4 years		0.99 (0.95–1.05)	0.99 (0.95–1.04)
5–14 years		0.96 (0.92–1.01)	0.97 (0.92–1.01)
Child age (yrs)		1.13 (1.11–1.15)***	1.09 (1.07–1.11)***
Breastfeeding
Delayed		Ref.	Ref.
Early		0.97 (0.93–1.01)	0.97 (0.93–1.01)
Unknown timing		1.03 (0.95–1.13)	1.08 (0.99–1.17)
Never breastfed		1.10 (0.99–1.22)	1.12 (1.01–1.24)*
Interactions
Slum neighborhood*child age			1.19 (1.16–1.23)***

Note: level 2 and level 3 variables are contextual variables. Level 1 variables are compositional variables.
* 𝑃<0.05, **𝑃<0.01, ***𝑃<0.001.