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Oncogenes | Role in autophagy | Evidences of oncogenesis | Reference |
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AKT1 | Upstream inhibitor of autophagy via mTOR activation | Gain-of-function mutations in several cancer types | [36] |
BCL-2, BCL-XL | Sequester Beclin-1 into inactive complexes | Overexpressed in several cancer types | [37] |
PI3K | Upstream inhibitors of autophagy via AKT1 activation | Gain-of-function mutations in many cancer types | [36, 38] |
Ras | Upstream inhibitors of autophagy via mTOR activation | Hyperactivated in several cancer types | [37] |
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Tumor suppressors | Role in autophagy | Evidences of tumor suppression | ā |
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ATG4 | Converts LC3 into LC3 I during stress conditions | Mutations in ATG4C increase susceptibility to carcinogens | [39] |
ARHI/DIRAS3, PTEN | Relieve autophagy inhibition mediated by PI3K-AKT1 | Downregulated in ovarian cancer | [36, 40] |
Beclin-1, p150 | Required in the nucleation complex for autophagy initiation | Deleted in breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer | [41] |
BH3-only proteins | Relieve autophagy inhibition mediated by BCL-2/BCL-XL | Mutated or silenced in many cancer types | [42ā44] |
UVRAG, BIF1 | Positive regulator of the nucleation complex | Deleted or downregulated in colorectal cancer | [45] |
DAPK1 | Relieve autophagy inhibition mediated by BCL-2/BCL-XL | Silenced in many tumor types | [46] |
LKB1/STK11 | Promotes autophagy via AMPK activation | Mutated in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome and non-small cell lung carcinomas | [47, 48] |
NF1 | Relieve autophagy inhibition mediated by Ras | Mutated in neurofibromatosis, juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia | [37] |
RAB7A | Modulates endosomal trafficking involved in autophagosome maturation | Rearranged in leukemia, deleted in solid tumors | [49] |
TSC1, TSC2 | Stimulate Rheb GTPase, thus inhibiting the PI3K-AKT1-mTOR pathway | Mutated in TSC | [50] |
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