New and Emerging Strategies in Platelet-Rich Plasma Application in Musculoskeletal Regenerative Procedures: General Overview on Still Open Questions and Outlook
Table 1
Main GFs release by α-granules.
GFs
Mechanism of action
TGF-β
(i) MSC proliferation and differentiation (ii) Cell mitogenesis (iii) Collagen II, proteoglycan, and ECM synthesis (iv) Endothelial chemotaxis and angiogenesis (v) Macrophages and lymphocyte proliferation inhibition; chondrocyte differentiation (vi) TIMP upregulation
PDGF-a and -b
(i) OBs and MSCs mitogenesis (ii) Macrophages, neutrophil, and other cell chemotaxis; collagen I synthesis
bFGF
(i) Chondrocyte and OB differentiation (ii) MSCs, chondrocyte, and OB mitogenesis
EGF
(i) Endothelial chemotaxis and angiogenesis (ii) Collagen synthesis (iii) MSC and epithelial cell mitogenesis
CTGF
(i) Angiogenesis (ii) Cartilage regeneration (iii) Fibrosis (iv) Platelet adhesion
VEGF
(i) Angiogenesis (ii) Endothelial cell mitogenesis
IGF
(i) Cell proliferation (ii) Collagen synthesis (iii) Myoblast proliferation and differentiation