|
| Association | Specific study finding |
|
| Maternal sequelae |
|
| Early pregnancy loss | 47% of women with repeated pregnancy loss found to have vitamin D deficiency [85] |
| Vitamin D deficiency associated with twofold increased risk of first trimester miscarriage [86] |
|
| Gestational diabetes | Third trimester serum 25(OH)D level inversely correlated with HbA1c [87] |
| Significantly lower serum 25(OH)D levels found in women with glucose intolerance and GDM at 24–28 weeks of gestation [88] |
|
| Preeclampsia | In nulliparous women, 25(OH)D levels were 15% lower in early pregnancy for those who went on to develop preeclampsia compared to those who did not; women with serum level < 37.5 nmol/L had 5-fold increased odds of developing preeclampsia [89] |
| Women with preeclampsia had significantly lower vitamin D levels in mid-late pregnancy [90] |
| Maternal and umbilical cord serum 1,25(OH)2D levels were significantly lower in women with preeclampsia as compared to controls [91] |
|
| Preterm births | Incidence of preterm birth increased significantly as serum 25(OH)D levels decreased [92] |
| Women with preterm births before 31 weeks had nearly double the rate of vitamin D deficiency as controls [93] |
|
| Higher rates of Caesarean section | Women with a 25(OH)D level less than 37.5 nmol/L had nearly quadruple the rate of Caesarean sections than those with levels greater than 37.5 nmol/L [94] |
|
| Small for dates infants | Women with vitamin D deficiency had a 12 times increased relative risk for low birth weight babies compared to controls with sufficient vitamin D [95] |
|
| Maternal postpartum depression | Women with 25(OH)D serum levels less than 35.4 nmol/L had a 7-fold increased risk of developing postpartum depression [96] |
|
| Sequelae in offspring |
|
| Impaired lung development | Maternal vitamin D deficiency at 18 weeks associated with poorer lung function and increased risk of wheezing at age 6 [97] |
| Lower maternal vitamin D intake in pregnancy associated with persistent wheeze in 5-year-old offspring [98] |
|
| Neurocognitive development | Maternal vitamin D < 70 nmol/L at 18 weeks gestation associated with nearly twofold increase in impaired language development at age 5 and 10 in offspring [99] |
|
| Bone strength | Maternal vitamin D < 50 nmol/L in midpregnancy associated with lower peak bone mass in offspring at 20 years of age [100] |
| Maternal vitamin D deficiency in late pregnancy associated with reduced bone mineral content in offspring at age 9 [101] |
|
| Eating disorder | Maternal vitamin D deficiency at 18 weeks of pregnancy associated with 1.8-fold increased risk of development of adolescent eating disorder in offspring [102] |
|
| Multiple sclerosis | Lower maternal vitamin D intake in pregnancy associated with elevated risk of development of multiple sclerosis in offspring [33] |
|
