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Step affected | Animal model of syndactyly |
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IA: activation of the WNT canonical signaling or the accumulation of beta catenin | Mice with Lrp4 mutations |
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IB: suppression of the BMP canonical signaling or the suppression of BMPs/SMADs | (i) Murine limb deformity (Ld) model (Fmn1 deletions resulting in Grem1 overexpression) |
(ii) Transgenic chick with Grem1 overexpression |
(iii) Overexpression of the Bmp antagonist Noggin |
(iv) Inactivation of the Bmp receptor gene Bmpr1a |
(v) Mice deficient in Bmp2 and Bmp4 |
(vi) Knockout mice lacking Cx43 |
(vii) Selective inactivation of Smad 1 and 5. |
(viii) Hammer toe (Hm) mutant mice. |
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II: overexpression of FGF8 | (i) Suppression of Notch signaling |
(ii) Msx1; Msx2 double-mutant mice |
(iii) Rounded foot mouse mutants (Fras1 loss-of-function) |
(iv) Mice lacking Nidogen 1 and 2. |
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III: suppression of retinoic acid or suppression of apoptosis/extracellular matrix degradation | (i) Suppression of retinoic acid activity |
(ii) Spdh/Spdh mice |
(iii) Bid, Bim, Puma triple knockout mice |
(iv) Mice deficient in ADAMTS |
(v) Knockout of Akirin2 in the limb ectoderm |
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