Reciprocity: A Predictor of Mental Health and Continuity in Elderly People's Relationships? A Review
Table 1
Studies covered in this paper.
Author’s name
Year
Type of study
Nationality
Sample groups
Sample age ( or/M)
Size ()
Type of social support
Measures of reciprocity
Outcome variable
Silverstein et al.
2002
Longitudinal (27 y) 1971–1997 Six waves Questionnaires
USA, California; middle and working classes
Elderly parents children Intergenerational
1971–1997: Children: 19 y–43 y Parents: 45 y–72 y
children
Emotional support Practical support Informational support
Dichotomously scored (0: “not provided”; 1: “provided”) each indicator and summed them to create an additive scale ranging from 0 to 5 at each time period, which were statistically analyzed.
Continuity
Becker et al.
2003
Longitudinal (5 y) Five waves Open-ended and semi-structured interviews
USA—four ethnic groups
Elders and their children/family Intergenerational
50 y
elderly
“What kinds of support or assistance do elders provide to family members and vice versa?”
Comparison of coded answers of provision and receiving support
Continuity
Klein Ikkink et al.
1998
Longitudinal (3 y) 1992–1995 Two waves Mailed questionnaires
The Netherlands—Dutch ethnic group
The elders. Family subgroups, friends, neighbors, and acquaintances
55 y M: 68 y
Instrumental support
Reciprocity variables were constructed by subtracting the support received by the support given. A negative score indicated “overbenefiting”; 0 meant “balance”; a positive score indicated “underbenefiting”.
Continuity
Klein Ikkink et al.
1999
Longitudinal (3 y) 1992–1995 Three waves Face-to-face interviews
The Netherlands—Dutch ethnic group
The elders. Family subgroups, friends, neighbors, and acquaintances
55 y M: 68 y
Emotional support Instrumental support
Reciprocity variables were constructed by subtracting the support received by the support given. A negative score indicated “overbenefiting”; 0 meant “balance”; a positive score indicated “underbenefiting”.
Continuity
Antonucci et al.
1987
Cross-sectional Personal interview
USA
Elders All members of a sampled household 70 y and older were interviewed
50 y (Range 50–95)
Network structure (i.e., network size) and functional support to the ten most important network members (NM) regarding confiding, respect, caring, talking about health.
Respondents (NM) were asked to identify each network member from whom they received each type of support as well as whom they provided each type of support. Functional support where NM provided support was coded as 1. NM who did not provide support to the focal person were coded as 0.
Continuity Convoy model
Ingersoll-Dayton et al.
1988
Cross-sectional Personal interview
USA
Elders and their friends All members of a sampled household 70 y and older were interviewed
50 y (Range 50–95)
Amount of perceived reciprocity: number who received support and number who provided support Network demand General well-being.
If the functional supports were calculated as zero, this indicated a reciprocal relationship. A positive number were coded as receiving more. A negative number were coded as giving more.
Continuity Life satisfaction Negative affect
Lewittes
1989
Cross-sectional Two studies: () Quantitative (2) Qualitative
USA; Long Island and New York City area White and black women
Elderly women and their friends () Questionnaire study () Interviews of both members of four friendship pairs
65 y
() (2) (four friend-ship pairs)
() Quantitative: Emotional support-Intimacy, Activity, Practical help () Qualitative: Emotional support-Intimacy, Activity, Practical help
Relationships are measured in terms of the equity of exchange input and exchange outcome and the gains and losses of each person in the relationship
Elderly inhabitants and their close family members, remote kin, neighbors, and parental caretakers
60 y
All kinds of social interaction and social support: Emotional support Instrumental support Social companionship
A life history method—collecting detailed qualitative information Interview focusing on particular economic and social variables, that is, questions about the degree of interaction (i.e., reciprocity) with close family, their neighbors, and kin.
Continuity
de Vugt et al.
2003
Longitudinal (2 y) Questionnaire Interview
The Netherlands
Female and male spouse caregivers of consecutively referred patients with dementia
Caregiver: M = 68.3 (SD 7.9) Patient: M = 71.6 (SD 7.6)
(male = 22; female = 31)
The quality of the relationship was measured by four items: General closeness, Communication, Similarity of views about life, and Degree of getting along. Interviews reporting on changes in their relationship since the onset of dementia
Analysis of the difference between baseline and the followup questionnaires and interviews. Description of relational changes since the onset of dementia
Relationship changes (i.e., reciprocity) Continuity of the relationship
Hooker et al.
2000
Cross-sectional Questionnaire Interview
USA New York
Female and male spouse caregivers for patients with Alzheimer’ (AD) and Parkinson’ diseases (PD)
Coping strategies: Problem-Focused coping Social support coping Emotion-focused coping Depression Anxiety
Analysis of answers from the questionnaires and the interview
Marital satisfaction. Mental health Continuity
Neufeld et al.
1998
Longitudinal (18 months) Three waves In-depth interviews Focus-group discussion
Canada
Male caregivers of cognitively impaired (primarily AD) older adults. Caregivers relationship to care recipient, family, and friends
60 y (range 33 to 87 y)
caregivers
Describing a typical day Describing give-and-take in all their relationships and the support they received from and gave to others
Coding and analysis of the presence or absence of reciprocity, the context in which reciprocity occurred, characteristics of reciprocity, and the consequent feelings of the caregiver were coded, and analyzed
Continuity
Bear
1990
Longitudinal Two waves At entry in an RCH resident and six months after entering an RCH Face-to-face interviews
USA Florida
The elderly and their relations to their family and friends chosen upon emotional bonding and tie content
60 y
Measurement of network density, reciprocity, intensity, and material linkages The year prior to their RCH entry, retrospectively, by their present entry period and six months later
Reciprocity was measured by the proportion of each resident’s network material links (financial, assistance (including past assistance from the residents), gifts) that are reciprocated
Continuity
Knesebeck et al.
2003
Cross-sectional Telephone interviews
Germany USA
Elderly and their relationship to their marital life (or partnership) The parent-children exchange
60 y
Germany USA
Emotional support Practical support Experience regarding reciprocity/nonreciprocity of their most important social relationships
The effort-reward-model: (effort spent –“high cost” and rewards received –“low gain”)
Mental health Depressive symptoms: CES-D scale
McMunn et al.
2009
Cross-sectional
England
The elderly
M = 62 y
“Caring for others” defined as emotional and instrumental social support
The effort-reward model
Mental Health: Quality of life—CASP-scale Life satisfaction—SLS-scale Depressive symptoms—CES-D scale
Wahrendorf et al.
2006
Cross-sectional Face-to face-interviews
Ten European countries (Austria, Germany, Sweden, The Netherlands, Spain, Italy, France, Denmark, Greece, and Switzerland)
The elderly
50 y
“Care for a sick or disabled adult” “Provide help to family, friends, or neighbors”
The effort-reword model
Mental health: Quality of life—CASP-scale Depressive symptoms—CES-D scale
Liang et al.
2001
Cross-sectional
USA Different counties
The elderly and their relationships with their friends, neighbors, and relatives
65 y
Emotional support Tangible support Informational support
Assessed composites measures of both support received and given
Mental health: Depressive symptoms—CES-D scale
Roberto et al.
1986
Cross-Sectional Interview
USA
The elderly and their relationship with their best friend
65 y M = 73.8 y
Emotional support Instrumental support Social companionship
Making an equity score based on a modified version of the Walster Global Measure of Participants’ perceptions of Inputs, Outcomes, and Equity/Inequity: Scores less than zero were “overbenefited”. Scores equal to zero were “equitable benefited”. Scores greater than zero were “underbenefited”.
Mental health: Relationship Distress—“Austin’s Total Mood Index”
Rook
1987
Cross-sectional
USA Los Angeles
Elderly widowed women and their relationships with their social network, in particular with friends and family members
60 y M = 72 y
Emotional support Instrumental support Social companionship
Numbers of positive inputs received and positive inputs provided were computed as two measures. A difference score was computed by subtracting these two measures: 0 represented an “equitable exchange pattern”; a positive score indicated an “overbenefited” position; and a negative score indicated an “underbenefited” position.
Mental health/Social satisfaction: Loneliness—UCLA and SFL scales Psychological well-being (Bradburn, 1969) Quality of life (Campbell et al., 1976)
Nemoto
1998
Cross-Sectional Telephone Interview and questionnaires
USA
Japanese American elderly resided in New York
55 y M = 71 y
Emotional support Instrumental support
Reciprocity norms were identified by asking respondents to rate their perception of the reciprocal behaviors in each function of social support on a 7-point response scale
Mental health: Life satisfaction (Rapkin et al., 1992) Scale of depressive symptoms (α = .80)
Wentowski
1981
Anthropological study Structured interviews Participant observation
USA Cities from the industrial complexes in southern USA
The elderly and their exchanges to persons in different roles in their social network
55 y M = 71 y
Identify exchange strategies within the personal networks of transference of goods services, emotional support and the cultural rules of reciprocity directing these exchanges.
Identifying the cultural rules governing reciprocity as the basis for constructing exchange strategies
Mental health: Degree of independence Degree of self-worth