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Test | Test materials/dose | Test model | Endpoint/biomarkers | Effects | Mechanisms | Reference |
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In vivo | Extracts 4.5–9.0 g/kg | MSG-treated rats | Morris maze test Step-down test c-fos, NGF expression | Improve memory | Motivate hippocampal c-fos /NGF expression | [75] |
Extracts 4.5–9.0 g/kg | MSG-treated rats | Morris maze test Step-down test NMDA-R1, GABA-R Glutamine, GABA levels | Improve memory | Motivate hippocampal NMDA-R1/GABA-R expression adjust Glutamine/GABA levels | [77] |
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In vitro | Extracts 0.1–1.0 mg/mL, 1–3 d | C6 glioblastoma cells | GDNF gene expression | Stimulate GDNF expression | Up-regulate cPKC/ERK1/2 pathways | [76] |
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In vivo | Catalpol i.p., 10 mg/kg, 10 d | LPS-treated mice | MMPNF-κB | Improve memoryInhibit inflammation | Inhibit NF-κB activation protect mitochondrial function | [78] |
Catalpol 2.5–10 mg/kg, 2 w | D-galactose-treated mice | Passive avoidance test LDH, GSH-ST, GS, CK | Improve memory | Inhibit oxidative stress Maintain energy metabolism | [79–81] |
Catalpol i.p., 1–10 mg/kg | IR-treated Gerbils | Bcl-2, Bax, NO | Protect CA1 neuronsImprove memory | Inhibit apoptosis Inhibit oxidative stress | [82–84] |
Catalpol i.p., 5 mg/kg, 10 d | Aged rats | GAP-43/synaptophysin PKC, BDNF | Protect neuroplasticity | Up-regulate PKC and BDNF (hippocampus) | [85] |
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In vitro | Catalpol 0.5 mM, 1 h | MPTP-treated neurons | Cells Viability, MAO-B, ROS, MCI, MMP, MPT | Protect neurons | Protect mitochondriaMaintain MAO-B activity | [86] |
Catalpol 0.5 mM, 30 min | Aβ1-42-treated Cortical neurons-glia | Cells Viability TNF-α, iNOS, NO, ROS | Protect neurons | Inhibit inflammation | [87] |
Catalpol 0.25–5 mg/ml | Primary rat cortical neurons | Cells Viability NF-200 antigen | Enhance axonal growthNo impact on survival | N.A. | [88] |
Catalpol 0.1–100 μg/ml | OGD-treated PC12 cells | Bcl-2, caspase-3/MMP SOD, GSH-Px | Inhibit apoptosis | Retain Bcl-2 and MMP suppress caspase-3 activation maintain SOD and GSH-Px | [89] |
Catalpol 0.1–1.0 mM | H2O2-treated PC12 cells | Bcl-2 cytochrome c caspase | Protect neuronsInhibit apoptosis | Prevent cytochrome c release Inactivate caspase cascade | [90] |
Catalpol 0.05–0.5 mM |
H2O2-treated astrocytes | Cells Viability ROS | Inhibit oxidative stress | maintain glutathione Scavenge ROS | [91] |
Catalpol 0.3–275.9 μM, 24 h | OGD-treated mice astrocytes | Cell survival/MMP ROS, NO, iNOS, MDASOD, GSH-Px, GSH | Protect astrocytes | Inhibit oxidative stress | [92] |
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