Pharmacological effects Mechanisms References (I) Experimental studies
CAT, SOD, and GST; Antioxidant activity
LDH [23 ]
CAT, SOD, and GSH [24 ]
TBARS[26 ] Anti-inflammatory effects
LPS-induced NO production[28 –30 ] Anticancer effects
Cell differentiation[35 ]
Proliferation of cancer cells[3 , 36 ]
IL-2 and IFN-c[38 ]
Tumour growth
Cell proliferation, migration, and cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase[42 ]
E-selectin expression[40 ]
Janus tyrosine kinases-signal transducers and activators of transcription, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and NF-κ B signalling pathways, suppression of hsp 90, cyclins, and cyclin-dependent kinases, MMPs and growth factors
Tumor suppressor proteins p53 and p21[41 ] Immunomodulatory effect
Antibody production[43 ]
Delayed-type hypersensitivity response
Proliferation of human peripheral blood lymphocytes Key cytokines and the expression [1 , 2 , 44 ]
ALT activity[50 ] Hepatoprotective effects
Concanavalin A-induced liver injury and hepatocyte apoptosis[52 ]
GOT, GPT, ACP, and ALP levels [54 , 56 ] Antimicrobial effects Acted against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) [59 ] Acted against nine bacterial strains such as Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Shigella sonnei, Staphylococcus aureus, [63 ] Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pneumonia, Streptococcus pyogenes, Legionella pneumophila, and Bordetella pertussis
Herpes simplex virus (HSV)[62 , 68 ] Antiviral effects Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [3 , 67 ] Flaviviruses and pestiviruses [69 ] Dengue virus (DENV1) [71 ] Larvicidal and ovicidal effects Affected the larval growth of Anopheles stephensi [81 ] Ovicidal activity against various age groups of Aedes Stephens [82 ] Larvicidal and ovicidal activities against Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Aedes aegypti L. [83 ] Renoprotective effects
Gentamicin-induced increase in serum creatinine,[86 ] serum urea, and blood urea nitrogen levels
Spermatogenesis[94 ] Antifertility effects
Degenerative changes in the seminiferous tubules, regression of Leydig cells, and regressive and/or degenerative changes in the epididymis, seminal vesicle,[94 ]
ventral prostate, and coagulating glands [94 ] Antihyperglycemic activity
TG[24 ]
Blood glucose level[99 , 100 , 102 ] Hypolipidemic effects
TC, TG, HDL-TC, and LDL-TC[109 ]
Blood glucose, triglyceride, and LDL[110 ] Cardiovascular effects Limiting blood flow to the brain, heart, and bodies of other organs [112 ] Protect rat cardiomyocytes against hypoxia injury by increasing GSH [113 ] and antioxidant enzyme
Coronary perfusion pressure[114 ]
Platelet-activating factor (PAF)[15 ] Inhibitory effects on platelet aggregation
eNOS-NO/cyclic GMP pathway[120 ]
PLCγ 2-PKC and PI3 kinase/Akt-MAPKs Inhibitory effects on NF-kappa B activation
NF-κ B via the covalent modification of reduced Cys62 of p50[13 ]
NF-κ B via blocking the binding of NF-κ B oligonucleotides to nuclear proteins[128 ] (II) Clinical studies Anti-HIV effect
CD4+ lymphocyte count[3 ]
gp120-mediated cell fusion of HL2/3 cells with TZM-bl cells[135 ] Effects on upper respiratory tract infections
Relieving the symptoms of fever and sore throat[73 ] Tiredness, sleeplessness, sore throat, and nasal secretion [136 ]
