(1) Nonmusic interactive play (nonmusic toys and books) (2) Independent play
18 sessions of 10 minutes each
Behavior observation of videotaped sessions
Significant more interactions during interactive music therapy than the two comparator groups. Significant more requesting during interactive than independent play, but no effect of music
Blinding not reported No details about diagnostic process No baseline assessment of functioning Small sample size No standardized outcome measures No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies)
Structured receptive MT (songs with social stories)
(1) Structured receptive “story therapy” (reading of social stories) (2) No intervention, (5 days)
5 individual daily sessions
Repetitive behaviors outside therapy sessions (in classroom)
No difference
Blinding not reported No details about diagnostic process Small sample size No standardized outcome measures No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies)
Randomized, single blind, crossover Duration: 2 weeks
(M 8; F 2) Age: 4–9 years
Structured receptive MT (songs used to teach signs)
“Rhythm therapy” (rhythmic speech used to teach signs)
5 individual sessions
Imitating behavior in sessions (sign and speech imitation)
Significant improvement of imitation in the music versus rhythmic conditions
Small sample size No details about diagnostic process No standardized outcome measures No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies)
Music therapy sessions (combined active and receptive: guitar playing, songs),
Placebo (no music) sessions,
5 individual sessions of 20 minutes
Responses within sessions: (a) verbal responses, (b) gestural responses
Significant increase in verbal responses in the music group versus placebo. No significant difference in gestural responses
Blinding not reported No details about diagnostic process Small sample size No standardized outcome measures No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies) Number of subjects per session varies
Randomized, single blind, crossover Duration: 8 months
(M 13; F 2); drop-out (M 3; F 2) Age: 39–71 months Diagnosis of ASD by two child psychiatrists
Improvisational music therapy
Play sessions with toys
12 thirty-minute sessions, scheduled weekly
PDD-BI, ESCS, eye contact frequency and duration, initiation of engagement frequency, emotional synchronicity frequency and duration, musical synchronicity frequency and duration, number of compliant-no compliant and absent responses, joy frequency and duration
Significant improvement only in ESCS score after music therapy compared to play (medium effect size). Eye contact was longer in music therapy than in play
Single blind (additionally, assessors were not blinded to all outcome measures, in particular to ESCS) Small sample size No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies) High drop-out rate Statistical analysis performed only in completers
Randomized, single blind, parallel group Duration: 5 days
(M 44; F 6) Age: 3–5 years
Music training (“Developmental Speech and Language Training through Music”; videotaped songs with target words),
(1) Speech training (videotaped spoken stories with target words), (2) No training,
6 individual sessions within 3 days
Behavior observation (verbal response) of videotaped posttest sessions
No differences between music and speech therapy (improvement in both groups versus no treatment). Higher improvement in low functioning children
Single blind No standardized outcome measures No details about the diagnostic process No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies)
Randomized, single blind, crossover Duration: 2 weeks
(M 17; F 5) Age: 3–5 years
Applied Behavior Analysis Verbal Behavior plus Music Training (sung instructions, songs with target words)
(1) Applied Behavior Analysis Verbal Behavior (2) No training
6 individual sessions within 2 weeks
Behavior observation (verbal production) of videotaped posttest sessions
No statistically significant difference between the two treatment groups
Single blind Small sample size No standardized outcome measures No details about the diagnostic process No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies)
Home-based, family-centred music therapy (songs, improvisation, structured music interactions), plus standard care,
Standard care,
16 sessions, scheduled weekly
Vineland SEEC, SRS-Preschool Version (parent rated), MBCDI-Words and Gestures (parent-rated) PCRI (parent-rated)
Statistical significant difference between active treatment and control in the primary outcome (Vineland SEEC-socialization). No statistical difference in the other scales
Parent not blinded to the intervention Small sample size
(M 13; F 7) Age: 22–57 years Diagnosis of ASD only in 10 patients; each patient had a diagnosis of mental retardation
Vibroacoustic music treatment (5 weeks)
Placebo = no treatment (5 weeks)
Two 20 min sessions per week
BPI (self-injurious behavior; stereotypical behavior; aggressive behavior) Behavior observation analysis by video recording
In ASD, vibroacoustic music statistically reduced self-injurious, behaviors. No other effect was observed
Blinding not reported Small sample size Not specific for ASD diagnosis (they included mental retardation) No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies) Only one standardized measure
Cluster randomized, placebo controlled (three different clusters according to the social story type) Duration: 3 weeks
(no data on age or gender) Completers
(M 29; F 1) Age: 9–21 years
Music therapy groups (social story sung to them)
Nonmusic control groups (social story read to them)
50-min music therapy session/day per 1 week
ASSP (parent-rated 1 week before treatment and posted 1 week after) Five comprehension check questions
No significant difference between groups
Blinding not reported High drop-out rate (no information provided) Only per protocol analysis No accounting for potential confounders (medication, other therapies)
ASD, autism spectrum disorder; ASSP, Autism Social Skills Profile; BPI, Behavior Problems Inventory; BPRS, Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale; CARS, Childhood Autism Rating Scale; CGI, Clinical Global Impression; ESCS, Early Social Communication Scale; MBCDI, MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories; PCRI, Parent-Child Relationship Inventory; PDD-BI, Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Behavior Inventory; SRS, Social Responsiveness Scale; Vineland SEECS, Vineland Social Emotional Early Childhood Scales.