Promoting inflammation by inducing the production of IL-6, IL-1, and TNF-α Inducing the production of cytokines that increase Th1 response Inducing chemokine expression, adhesion molecules by epithelial and endothelial cells, fibroblast proliferation, and growth factors expression, such as G-CSF and GM-CSF [68]
TGF-β
T cells Macrophages Fibroblasts
Inhibiting Th subtypes, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells [49] Playing a key role in the differentiation of Th17 and Treg, in balance with some factors, such as IL-6 [26, 27]
IFN-γ
Th1 cells TCD8+ cells NK cells
Activation of macrophages [50] Inducing the production of IL-12 [57, 58]