| | Functions | Mechanism of action | Authors and date of publication |
| | Anti-oxidant | Direct effects: neutralizes a variety of ROS like OH, ROO, H2O2, and O2 (nonreceptor mediated). Interacts with the lipid bilayers and stabilizes mitochondrial membranes thereby improving electron transport chain.
Indirect effects:
(i) regulates nitric oxide production by interaction with nitric oxide synthesis,
(ii) increases gene expression and enzyme activities of glutathione promoting removal of H2O2 and super oxide dismutase (receptor mediated). | Ganguly et al., 2006 [80], Reiter et al., 1995 [81]
Tan et al., 2000 [82], Cagnoli et al., 1995 [83]
Bongiorno et al., 2005 [84], Aydogan et al., 2006 [85] |
| | Anti-inflammatory | Inhibits inflammatory enzyme COX-2 by binding to the active sites of COX-1 and COX-2. | Antolín et al., 1996 [86], Rodriguez et al., 2004 [87], Tomás-Zapico and Coto-Montes, 2005 [88] |
| | Immunomodulatory function | Promotes endogenic production of IL-2 concomitant with serum melatonin concentration.
Activates CD+4 lymphocytes by increasing the production of IL-2 and IFN-γ.
Modulates immune functions by activating ng on CD+4 cells and monocytes. | De la rocha et al., 2007 [89]
Guerrero et al., 2000 [90], Garcia-Mauriño et al., 1997 [91] |
| | Anticancer effect | Stimulates production of IL-2, thereby stimulates the activity of natural killer cells which intervene in the cytolytic mechanisms.
Amplifies the antitumour activity of IL-2.
Scavenges reactive oxygen species which a secondary messengers in the signaling pathway leading to cell division.
Inhibited the growth of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells.
Involved in the pathogenesis of oral precancerous lesions like lichen planus and leukoplakia by free radical scavenging action. | Garcia-Maurino et al., 2000 [92], Cutando et al., 2004 [93], Martin et al., 2006 [59], Lardone et al., 2006 [94], Reiter et al., 2007 [95], Reiter, 2004 [96] |
| | Antiviral effect | Induces production of IL-1β which is useful in treating viral infections. | Chaiyarit et al., 2005 [32] |
| | Antimycotic effect | Enhances phagocytic function and reduces oxidative stress originating during candidiasis. | Nunes and Pereira, 2008 [70] |
| | Bone remodelling | Promotes osteoblast differentiation and bone formation.
Stimulates synthesis of type 1 collagen fibres in human osteoblasts in vitro.
Inhibits bone resorption by interfering with the activity of osteoclasts through its indirect antioxidant and direct free radical scavenging action.
Increase genic expression of bone sialoprotein and other protein markers thereby reducing osteoblast differentiation time.
Downregulates RANKL-mediated osteoclast formation and activation. | Terron et al., 2002, 2003, 2004 [71, 97, 98], Roth et al., 1999 [99], Nakade et al., 1999 [44], Koyama et al., 2002 [45], Nakade et al., 1999 [44], Yasuda, 2006 [100], Boyce et al., 2006 [101] |
|
|
