Copyright © 2012 George A. Kelley et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

1. A. G. Robling, A. B. Castillo, and C. H. Turner, “Biomechanical and molecular regulation of bone remodeling,” Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering, vol. 8, pp. 455–498, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
2. T. M. Skerry, “The response of bone to mechanical loading and disuse: fundamental principles and influences on osteoblast/osteocyte homeostasis,” Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, vol. 473, no. 2, pp. 117–123, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
3. C. H. Turner and A. G. Robling, “Mechanisms by which exercise improves bone strength,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism, vol. 23, supplement 1, pp. 16–22, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
4. C. H. Turner and F. M. Pavalko, “Mechanotransduction and functional response of the skeleton to physical stress: the mechanisms and mechanics of bone adaptation,” Journal of Orthopaedic Science, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 346–355, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
5. R. Zernicke, C. MacKay, and C. Lorincz, “Mechanisms of bone remodeling during weight-bearing exercise,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 655–660, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
6. P. Schwab and K. Scalapino, “Exercise for bone health: rationale and prescription,” Current Opinion in Rheumatology, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 137–141, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
7. A. M. Cheung and L. Giangregorio, “Mechanical stimuli and bone health: what is the evidence?” Current Opinion in Rheumatology, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 561–566, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
8. C. Lin, X. Jiang, Z. Dai et al., “Sclerostin mediates bone response to mechanical unloading through antagonizing Wnt/β-catenin signaling,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 1651–1661, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
9. M. S. Ardawi, A. A. Rouzi, and M. H. Qari, “Physical activity in relation to serum sclerostin, insulin-like growth factor-1, and bone turnover markers in healthy premenopausal women: a cross-sectional and a longitudinal study,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol. 97, no. 10, pp. 3691–3699, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
10. K. Amrein, S. Amrein, C. Drexler et al., “Sclerostin and its association with physical activity, age, gender, body composition, and bone mineral content in healthy adults,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol. 97, no. 1, pp. 148–154, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
11. S. F. Vondracek, L. B. Hansen, and M. T. McDermott, “Osteoporosis risk in premenopausal women,” Pharmacotherapy, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 305–317, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
12. J. A. Kanis, P. Delmas, P. Burckhardt, C. Cooper, and D. Torgerson, “Guidelines for diagnosis and management of osteoporosis,” Osteoporosis International, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 390–406, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
13. E. M. Lewiecki, “Low bone mineral density in premenopausal women,” Southern Medical Journal, vol. 97, no. 6, pp. 544–550, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
14. C. A. Bailey and K. Brooke-Wavell, “Optimum frequency of exercise for bone health: randomised controlled trial of a high-impact unilateral intervention,” Bone, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 1043–1049, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
15. A. L. Friedlander, H. K. Genant, S. Sadowsky, N. N. Byl, and C. C. Glüer, “A two-year program of aerobics and weight training enhances bone mineral density of young women,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 574–585, 1995. View at Scopus
16. A. Heinonen, P. Kannus, H. Sievänen et al., “Randomised controlled trial of effect of high-impact exercise on selected risk factors for osteoporotic fractures,” The Lancet, vol. 348, no. 9038, pp. 1343–1347, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
17. M. T. C. Liang, W. Braun, S. L. Bassin et al., “Effect of high-impact aerobics and strength training on BMD in young women aged 20-35 years,” International Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 100–108, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
18. T. Lohman, S. Going, R. Pamenter et al., “Effects of resistance training on regional and total bone mineral density in premenopausal women: a randomized prospective study,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 1015–1024, 1995. View at Scopus
19. M. Warren, M. A. Petit, P. J. Hannan, and K. H. Schmitz, “Strength training effects on bone mineral content and density in premenopausal women,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 40, no. 7, pp. 1282–1288, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
20. C. M. Weaver, D. Teegarden, R. M. Lyle et al., “Impact of exercise on bone health and contraindication of oral contraceptive use in young women,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 873–880, 2001. View at Scopus
21. L. V. Hedges and I. Olkin, “Vote-counting methods in research synthesis,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 88, no. 2, pp. 359–369, 1980. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
22. H. S. Sacks, J. Berrier, and D. Reitman, “Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials,” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 316, no. 8, pp. 450–455, 1987. View at Scopus
23. O. O. Babatunde, J. J. Forsyth, and C. J. Gidlow, “A meta-analysis of brief high-impact exercises for enhancing bone health in premenopausal women,” Osteoporosis International, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 109–119, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
24. A. Bérard, G. Bravo, and P. Gauthier, “Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of physical activity for the prevention of bone loss in postmenopausal women,” Osteoporosis International, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 331–337, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
25. D. Bonaiuti, B. Shea, R. Iovine et al., “Exercise for preventing and treating osteoporosis in postmenopausal women,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 3, p. CD000333, 2002. View at Scopus
26. T. E. Howe, B. Shea, L. J. Dawson et al., “Exercise for preventing and treating osteoporosis in postmenopausal women,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 7, p. CD000333, 2011. View at Scopus
27. G. Kelley, “Aerobic exercise and lumbar spine bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis,” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 143–152, 1998. View at Scopus
28. G. A. Kelley, “Exercise and regional bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: a meta-analytic review of randomized trials,” American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 76–87, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
29. G. A. Kelley, “Aerobic exercise and bone density at the hip in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 798–807, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
30. G. A. Kelley, K. S. Kelley, and Z. V. Tran, “Exercise and bone mineral density in men: a meta-analysis,” Journal of Applied Physiology, vol. 88, no. 5, pp. 1730–1736, 2000. View at Scopus
31. G. A. Kelley, K. S. Kelley, and Z. V. Tran, “Resistance training and bone mineral density in women: a meta-analysis of controlled trials,” American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, vol. 80, no. 1, pp. 65–77, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
32. G. A. Kelley, K. S. Kelley, and Z. V. Tran, “Exercise and lumbar spine bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis of individual patient data,” Journals of Gerontology A, vol. 57, no. 9, pp. M599–M604, 2002. View at Scopus
33. G. A. Kelley and K. S. Kelley, “Aerobic exercise and regional bone density in women: a meta-analysis of controlled trials,” American Journal of Medicine and Sports, vol. 4, pp. 427–433, 2002.
34. G. A. Kelley and K. S. Kelley, “Efficacy of resistance exercise on lumbar spine and femoral neck bone mineral density in premenopausal women: a meta-analysis of individual patient data,” Journal of Women's Health, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 293–300, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
35. G. A. Kelley and K. S. Kelley, “Exercise and bone mineral density at the femoral neck in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials with individual patient data,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 194, no. 3, pp. 760–767, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
36. E. A. Marques, J. Mota, and J. Carvalho, “Exercise effects on bone mineral density in older adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials,” Age (Dordr), vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 1493–1515, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
37. M. M. S. James and S. Carroll, “Progressive high-intensity resistance training and bone mineral density changes among premenopausal women: evidence of discordant site-specific skeletal effects,” Sports Medicine, vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 683–704, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
38. M. M. S. James and S. Carroll, “Meta-analysis of walking for preservation of bone mineral density in postmenopausal women,” Bone, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 521–531, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
39. M. M. S. James and S. Carroll, “A meta-analysis of impact exercise on postmenopausal bone loss: the case for mixed loading exercise programmes,” British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 898–908, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
40. M. M. S. James and S. Carroll, “High-intensity resistance training and postmenopausal bone loss: a meta-analysis,” Osteoporosis International, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 1225–1240, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
41. M. M. S. James and S. Carroll, “Effects of different impact exercise modalities on bone mineral density in premenopausal women: a meta-analysis,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 251–267, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
42. K. M. Palombaro, “Effects of walking-only interventions on bone mineral density at various skeletal sites: a meta-analysis,” Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 102–107, 2005. View at Scopus
43. I. Polidoulis, J. Beyene, and A. M. Cheung, “The effect of exercise on pQCT parameters of bone structure and strength in postmenopausal women-a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials,” Osteoporosis International, pp. 1–13, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
44. B. A. Wallace and R. G. Cumming, “Systematic review of randomized trials of the effect of exercise on bone mass in pre- and postmenopausal women,” Calcified Tissue International, vol. 67, no. 1, pp. 10–18, 2000. View at Scopus
45. I. Wolff, J. J. Van Croonenborg, H. C. G. Kemper, P. J. Kostense, and J. W. R. Twisk, “The effect of exercise training programs on bone mass: a meta-analysis of published controlled trials in pre- and postmenopausal women,” Osteoporosis International, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
46. H. Sacks, T. C. Chalmers, and H. Smith, “Randomized versus historical controls for clinical trials,” American Journal of Medicine, vol. 72, no. 2, pp. 233–240, 1982. View at Scopus
47. K. F. Schulz, L. Chalmers, R. J. Hayes, and D. G. Altman, “Empirical evidence of bias: dimensions of methodological quality associated with estimates of treatment effects in controlled trials,” Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 273, no. 5, pp. 408–412, 1995. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
48. H. C. Kraemer and D. J. Kupfer, “Size of treatment effects and their importance to clinical research and practice,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 59, no. 11, pp. 990–996, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
49. A. M. Parfitt, “Osteonal and Hemi-Osteonal remodeling: the spatial and temporal framework for signal traffic in adult human bone,” Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 273–286, 1994. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
50. S. C. Manolagas, “Birth and death of bone cells: basic regulatory mechanisms and implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis,” Endocrine Reviews, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 115–137, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
51. B. K. Weeks and B. R. Beck, “The BPAQ: a bone-specific physical activity assessment instrument,” Osteoporosis International, vol. 19, no. 11, pp. 1567–1577, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
52. M. Sinaki, H. W. Wahner, K. P. Offord, and S. F. Hodgson, “Efficacy of nonloading exercises in prevention of vertebral bone loss in postmenopausal women: a controlled trial,” Mayo Clinic Proceedings, vol. 64, no. 7, pp. 762–769, 1989. View at Scopus
53. A. Liberati, D. G. Altman, J. Tetzlaff et al., “The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration,” Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 151, no. 4, pp. W-65–W-94, 2009. View at Scopus
54. M. L. van Driel, A. De Sutter, J. De Maeseneer, and T. Christiaens, “Searching for unpublished trials in Cochrane reviews may not be worth the effort,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 62, no. 8, pp. 838–e3, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
55. Thompson ResearchSoft, Reference Manager. (12. 0. 1), Thompson ResearchSoft, Philadelphia, Pa, USA, 2009.
56. Microsoft Corporation, Microsoft Excel. (2007), Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Wash, USA, 2007.
57. J. P. T. Higgins and S. Green, “Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (version 5. 0. 2),” 2009.
58. L. V. Hedges and I. Olkin, Statistical Methods For Meta-Analysis, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif, USA, 1985.
59. D. Follmann, P. Elliott, I. Suh, and J. Cutler, “Variance imputation for overviews of clinical trials with continuous response,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 45, no. 7, pp. 769–773, 1992. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
60. J. Cohen, “A power primer,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 112, no. 1, pp. 155–159, 1992. View at Scopus
61. R. DerSimonian and N. Laird, “Meta-analysis in clinical trials,” Controlled Clinical Trials, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 177–188, 1986. View at Scopus
62. J. P. T. Higgins, S. G. Thompson, and D. J. Spiegelhalter, “A re-evaluation of random-effects meta-analysis,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A, vol. 172, no. 1, pp. 137–159, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
63. G. A. Kelley and K. S. Kelley, “Impact of progressive resistance training on lipids and lipoproteins in adults: another look at a meta-analysis using prediction intervals,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 473–475, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
64. P. L. Graham and J. L. Moran, “Robust meta-analytic conclusions mandate the provision of prediction intervals in meta-analysis summaries,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 65, no. 5, pp. 503–510, 2012. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
65. J. P. T. Higgins, S. G. Thompson, J. J. Deeks, and D. G. Altman, “Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses,” British Medical Journal, vol. 327, no. 7414, pp. 557–560, 2003. View at Scopus
66. M. Egger, G. D. Smith, M. Schneider, and C. Minder, “Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test,” British Medical Journal, vol. 315, no. 7109, pp. 629–634, 1997. View at Scopus
67. J. Lau, C. H. Schmid, and T. C. Chalmers, “Cumulative meta-analysis of clinical trials builds evidence for exemplary medical care,” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 45–57, 1995. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
68. Biostat, Comprehensive Meta-Analysis. (2. 2), Biostat, Englewood, NJ, USA, 2006.
69. Statistical Services Center, SSC-Stat. (2. 18), Statistical Services Center, University of Reading, Reading, UK, 2007.
70. G. V. Glass, B. McGaw, and M. L. Smith, Meta-Analysis in Social Research, Sage, Newbury Park, Calif, USA, 1981.
71. S. R. Cummings, D. B. Karpf, F. Harris et al., “Improvement in spine bone density and reduction in risk of vertebral fractures during treatment with antiresorptive drugs,” American Journal of Medicine, vol. 112, no. 4, pp. 281–289, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
72. P. Ammann and R. Rizzoli, “Bone strength and its determinants,” Osteoporosis International, vol. 14, supplement 3, pp. S13–S18, 2003. View at Scopus
73. NIH Consensus Development Panel, “Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy,” Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 285, no. 6, pp. 785–795, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
74. R. Nikander, H. Sievänen, A. Heinonen, R. M. Daly, K. Uusi-Rasi, and P. Kannus, “Targeted exercise against osteoporosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis for optimising bone strength throughout life,” BMC Medicine, vol. 8, p. 47, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
75. A. Vainionpää, R. Korpelainen, H. Sievänen, E. Vihriälä, J. Leppäluoto, and T. Jämsä, “Effect of impact exercise and its intensity on bone geometry at weight-bearing tibia and femur,” Bone, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 604–611, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
76. D. W. Barry and W. M. Kohrt, “BMD decreases over the course of a year in competitive male cyclists,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 484–491, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
77. D. W. Barry and W. M. Kohrt, “Acute effects of 2 hours of moderate-intensity cycling on serum parathyroid hormone and calcium,” Calcified Tissue International, vol. 80, no. 6, pp. 359–365, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
78. W. M. Kohrt, S. A. Bloomfield, K. D. Little, M. E. Nelson, and V. R. Yingling, “Physical activity and bone health,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 36, no. 11, pp. 1985–1996, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
79. K. J. Rothman, “No adjustments are needed for multiple comparisons,” Epidemiology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 43–46, 1990. View at Scopus
80. J. H. Littell, J. Corcoran, and V. Pillai, Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA, 2008.
81. B. K. Pedersen and B. Saltin, “Evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in chronic disease,” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 3–63, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
82. J. P. T. Higgins and S. Green, Cochrane Handbook For Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5. 1. 0 [Updated March 2011], The Cochrane Collaboration, Melbourne, Australia, 2011.
83. J. Pildal, A. Hróbjartsson, K. J. Jörgensen, J. Hilden, D. G. Altman, and P. C. Gøtzsche, “Impact of allocation concealment on conclusions drawn from meta-analyses of randomized trials,” International Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 847–857, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
84. L. Wood, M. Egger, L. L. Gluud et al., “Empirical evidence of bias in treatment effect estimates in controlled trials with different interventions and outcomes: meta-epidemiological study,” British Medical Journal, vol. 336, no. 7644, pp. 601–605, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
85. J. L. Hutton and P. R. Williamson, “Bias in meta-analysis due to outcome variable selection within studies,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society C, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 359–370, 2000. View at Scopus
86. A. W. Chan, K. Krleža-Jerić, I. Schmid, and D. G. Altman, “Outcome reporting bias in randomized trials funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research,” Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol. 171, no. 7, pp. 735–740, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
87. A. W. Chan, A. Hróbjartsson, M. T. Haahr, P. C. Gøtzsche, and D. G. Altman, “Empirical evidence for selective reporting of outcomes in randomized trials: comparison of protocols to published articles,” Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 291, no. 20, pp. 2457–2465, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
88. A. W. Chan and D. G. Altman, “Identifying outcome reporting bias in randomised trials on PubMed: review of publications and survey of authors,” British Medical Journal, vol. 330, no. 7494, pp. 753–756, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
89. L. Hartling, M. Ospina, Y. Liang et al., “Risk of bias versus quality assessment of randomised controlled trials: cross sectional study,” British Medical Journal, vol. 339, p. b4012, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus