Journal Menu
- About this Journal
- Abstracting and Indexing
- Aims and Scope
- Article Processing Charges
- Articles in Press
- Author Guidelines
- Bibliographic Information
- Citations to this Journal
- Contact Information
- Editorial Board
- Editorial Workflow
- Free eTOC Alerts
- Publication Ethics
- Reviewers Acknowledgment
- Submit a Manuscript
- Subscription Information
- Table of Contents
International Journal of Ecology
Volume 2010 (2010), Article ID 150606, 13 pages
doi:10.1155/2010/150606
Research Article
Simulating Species Richness Using Agents with Evolving Niches, with an Example of Galápagos Plants
Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, 1499 Campus Delivery—B234 NESB, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1499, USA
Received 20 May 2010; Revised 24 July 2010; Accepted 28 July 2010
Academic Editor: Bradford Hawkins
Copyright © 2010 Randall B. Boone. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Linked References
- D. W. Onstad, “Population-dynamics theory: the roles of analytical, simulation, and supercomputer models,” Ecological Modelling, vol. 43, no. 1-2, pp. 111–124, 1988. View at Scopus
- R. H. MacArthur and E. O. Wilson, The Theory of Island Biogeography, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA, 1st edition, 1967.
- J. H. Brown and M. V. Lomolino, “Independent discovery of the equilibrium theory of island biogeography,” Ecology, vol. 70, no. 6, pp. 1954–1957, 1989.
- L. R. Heaney, “Dynamic disequilibrium: a long-term, large-scale perspective on the equilibrium model of island biogeography,” Global Ecology and Biogeography, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 59–73, 2000. View at Scopus
- J. H. Brown and A. Kodric-Brown, “Turnover rates in insular biogeography: effect of immigration on extinction,” Ecology, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 445–449, 1977.
- D. S. Simberloff, “Equilibrium theory of island biogeography and ecology,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol. 5, pp. 161–182, 1974.
- F. S. Gilbert, “The equilibrium theory of island biogeography: fact or fiction?” Journal of Biogeography, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 209–235, 1980.
- S. L. Peck, “Simulation as experiment: a philosophical reassessment for biological modeling,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 19, no. 10, pp. 530–534, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- B. L. Taylor, S. J. Chivers, S. Sexton, and A. E. Dizon, “Evaluating dispersal estimates using mtDNA data: comparing analytical and simulation approaches,” Conservation Biology, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 1287–1297, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- R. Levins, “The strategy of model building in population biology,” American Scientist, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 421–431, 1966.
- H. V. D. Parunak, R. Savit, and R. L. Riolo, “Agent-based modeling vs. equation-based modeling: a case study and user's guide,” in Multi-Agent Systems and Agent-Based Simulation, J. S. Sichman, Ed., pp. 10–25, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1998.
- T. F. L. V. B. Rangel, J. A. F. Diniz-Filho, and R. K. Colwell, “Species richness and evolutionary niche dynamics: a spatial pattern-oriented simulation experiment,” American Naturalist, vol. 170, no. 4, pp. 602–616, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- T. H. Hamilton, I. R. A. Rubinoff, R. H. Barth Jr., and G. L. Bush, “Species abundance: natural regulation of insular variation,” Science, vol. 142, no. 3599, pp. 1575–1577, 1963. View at Scopus
- D. S. Simberloff and M. P. Johnson, “Environmental determinants of island species number in the British Isles,” Journal of Biogeography, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 149–154, 1974.
- H. van der Werff, “Species number, area and habitat diversity in the Galapagos Islands,” Vegetatio, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 167–175, 1983. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- M. Rejmánek and R. Klinger, “Multiple source pools for Galápagos plant species richness: a critic analysis of the line of sight connectivity index,” Global Ecology and Biogeography, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 163–168, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- E. Willerslev, A. J. Hansen, K. K. Nielsen, and H. Adsersen, “Number of endemic and native plant species in the Galápagos Archipelago in relation to geographical parameters,” Ecography, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 109–119, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- D. Lack, “Numbers of species of hummingbirds in West-Indies,” Evolution, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 326–337, 1973.
- C. E. Parent, A. Caccone, and K. Petren, “Colonization and diversification of Galápagos terrestrial fauna: a phylogenetic and biogeographical synthesis,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, vol. 363, no. 1508, pp. 3347–3361, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- G. E. Hutchinson, “Population studies—animal ecology and demography—concluding remarks,” Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, vol. 22, pp. 415–427, 1957.
- G. E. Hutchinson, “The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolume,” in The Ecological Theatre and the Evolutionary Play, pp. 26–78, Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn, USA, 1965.
- J. M. Chase and M. A. Leibold, Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches. (ii) Interspecific Interactions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill, USA, 2003.
- M. Tokeshi and P. E. Schmid, “Niche division and abundance: an evolutionary perspective,” Population Ecology, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 189–200, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- F. J. Odling-Smee, K. N. Laland, and M. W. Feldman, Niche Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA, 2003.
- J. M. Chase, “Towards a really unified theory for metacommunities,” Functional Ecology, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 182–186, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- D. Tilman, “Competition and biodiversity in spatially structured habitats,” Ecology, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 2–16, 1994. View at Scopus
- A. H. Hirzel, J. Hausser, D. Chessel, and N. Perrin, “Ecological-niche factor analysis: how to compute habitat-suitability maps without absence data?” Ecology, vol. 83, no. 7, pp. 2027–2036, 2002. View at Scopus
- N. Mouquet and M. Loreau, “Community patterns in source-sink metacommunities,” American Naturalist, vol. 162, no. 5, pp. 544–557, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- A. H. Hirzel, G. Le Lay, V. Helfer, C. Randin, and A. Guisan, “Evaluating the ability of habitat suitability models to predict species presences,” Ecological Modelling, vol. 199, no. 2, pp. 142–152, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- R. J. Huggett, Fundamentals of Biogeography, Routledge, Oxford, UK, 2nd edition, 2004.
- G. F. Gause, The Struggle for Existence, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Md, USA, 1934.
- R. Levins and R. MacArthur, “Limiting similarity convergence and divergence of coexisting species,” American Naturalist, vol. 101, no. 921, pp. 377–385, 1967.
- H. Maherali and J. N. Klironomos, “Influence of phylogeny on fungal community assembly and ecosystem functioning,” Science, vol. 316, no. 5832, pp. 1746–1748, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- R. M. May and R. H. MacArthur, “Niche overlap as a function of environmental variability,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 69, no. 5, pp. 1109–1113, 1972. View at Scopus
- G. W. Cox and R. E. Ricklefs, “Species diversity and ecological release in Caribbean land bird faunas,” Oikos, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 113–122, 1977.
- R. D. Holt, R. Gomulkiewicz, and M. Barfield, “The phenomenology of niche evolution via quantitative traits in a 'black-hole' sink,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B, vol. 270, no. 1511, pp. 215–224, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. Ackermann and M. Doebeli, “Evolution of niche width and adaptive diversification,” Evolution, vol. 58, no. 12, pp. 2599–2612, 2004. View at Scopus
- G. F. Turner and M. T. Burrows, “A model of sympatric speciation by sexual selection,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B, vol. 260, no. 1359, pp. 287–292, 1995. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- B. Drossel and A. Mckane, “Competitive speciation in quantitative genetic models,” Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol. 204, no. 3, pp. 467–478, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. Doebeli and U. Dieckmann, “Speciation along environmental gradients,” Nature, vol. 421, no. 6920, pp. 259–264, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- S. Sadedin and M. J. Littlejohn, “A spatially explicit individual-based model of reinforcement in hybrid zones,” Evolution, vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 962–970, 2003. View at Scopus
- A. Vukics, J. Asbóth, and G. Meszéna, “Speciation in multidimensional evolutionary space,” Physical Review E, vol. 68, no. 4, Article ID 041903, pp. 1–10, 2003. View at Scopus
- M. E. Arnegard and A. S. Kondrashov, “Sympatric speciation by sexual selection alone is unlikely,” Evolution, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 222–237, 2004. View at Scopus
- W. A. Griffin, “Agent-based modelling for the theoretical biologist,” Biological Theory, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 404–409, 2006.
- M. A. Janssen and E. Ostrom, “Empirically based, agent-based models,” Ecology and Society, vol. 11, article no.37, 2006.
- D. C. Parker, S. M. Manson, M. A. Janssen, M. J. Hoffmann, and P. Deadman, “Multi-agent systems for the simulation of land-use and land-cover change: a review,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 314–337, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- C. J. Topping, T. S. Hansen, T. S. Jensen, J. U. Jepsen, F. Nikolajsen, and P. Odderskær, “ALMaSS, an agent-based model for animals in temperate European landscapes,” Ecological Modelling, vol. 167, no. 1-2, pp. 65–82, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- D. Jackson, M. Holcombe, and F. Ratnieks, “Coupled computational simulation and empirical research into the foraging system of Pharaoh's ant (Monomorium pharaonis),” BioSystems, vol. 76, no. 1–3, pp. 101–112, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- E. Brigatti, J. S. Martins, and I. Roditi, “Evolution of biodiversity and sympatric speciation through competition in a unimodal distribution of resources,” Physica A, vol. 376, no. 1-2, pp. 378–386, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- J. L. Crosby, “The evolution of genetic discontinuity—computer models of selection of barriers to interbreeding between subspecies,” Heredity, vol. 25, pp. 253–297, 1970.
- J. P. Rice, J. Roughgarden, and J. R. Koza, “Evolution of food-foraging strategies for the Caribbean Anolis lizard using genetic programming,” Adaptive Behavior, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 171–199, 1992.
- G. Huse, E. Strand, and J. Giske, “Implementing behaviour in individual-based models using neural networks and genetic algorithms,” Evolutionary Ecology, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 469–483, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- J. A. Stamps and V. V. Krishnan, “How territorial animals compete for divisible space: a learning-based model with unequal competitors,” American Naturalist, vol. 157, no. 2, pp. 154–169, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- E. Strand, G. Huse, and J. Giske, “Artificial evolution of life history and behavior,” American Naturalist, vol. 159, no. 6, pp. 624–644, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- R. B. Boone, S. J. Thirgood, and J. G. C. Hopcraft, “Serengeti wildebeest migratory patterns modeled from rainfall and new vegetation growth,” Ecology, vol. 87, no. 8, pp. 1987–1994, 2006. View at Scopus
- D. B. Fogel, Evolutionary Computation: Toward a New Philosophy of Machine Intelligence, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA, 3rd edition, 2006.
- J. D. Sauer, “Oceanic islands and biogeographical theory: a review,” The Geographical Review, vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 482–593, 1969.
- M. E. Gilpin, “The role of stepping-stone islands,” Theoretical Population Biology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 247–253, 1980. View at Scopus
- J. M. Diamond, “Continental and insular speciation in Pacific land birds,” Systematic Zoology, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 263–268, 1977.
- H. Adsersen, “Null hypothesis and species composition in the Galápagos Islands,” in Diversity and Pattern in Plant Communities, H. J. During, M. J. A. Werger, and J. H. Willems, Eds., pp. 37–46, Academic Publishing, The Hague, The Netherlands, 1988.
- R. J. Whittaker and J. M. Fernández-Palacios, Island Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2nd edition, 2007.
- L. E. Harvey, “Spatial patterns of inter-island plant and bird species movements in the Galapagos Islands,” Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 45–63, 1994. View at Scopus
- F. W. Preston, “Canonical distribution of commonness and rarity .2,” Ecology, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 410–432, 1962.
- M. P. Johnson and P. H. Raven, “Species number and endemism: the Galápagos archipelago revisited,” Science, vol. 179, no. 4076, pp. 893–895, 1973. View at Scopus
- B. B. Simpson, “Glacial migrations of plants: island biogeographical evidence,” Science, vol. 185, no. 4152, pp. 698–700, 1974. View at Scopus
- D. M. Porter, “Geography and dispersal of Galapagos Islands vascular plants,” Nature, vol. 264, no. 5588, pp. 745–746, 1976. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- E. F. Connor and D. Simberloff, “Species number and compositional similarity of Galápagos flora and avifauna,” Ecological Monographs, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 219–248, 1978.
- J. A. Yeakley and J. F. Weishampel, “Multiple source pools and dispersal barriers for Galapagos plant species distribution,” Ecology, vol. 81, no. 4, pp. 893–898, 2000. View at Scopus
- J. E. Lawesson, H. Adsersen, and P. Bentley, “An updated and annotated checklist of the vascular plants of the Galápagos Islands,” in Report from the Botanical Institute, Aarhus, Denmark, 1987.
- H. Adsersen, “Permanent vegetation quadrats in Galápagos,” Monograph of Systemic Botany Missouri Botanical Gardens, vol. 32, pp. 149–152, 1990.
- S. A. Bloom, “Similarity indexes in community studies—potential pitfalls,” Marine Ecology, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 125–128, 1981.
- T. W. Schoener, “Resource partitioning,” in Community Ecology: Pattern and Process, D. J. Anderson and J. Kikkawa, Eds., pp. 91–126, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Melbourne, Australia, 1986.
- M. L. Cody and J. M. Overton, “Short-term evolution of reduced dispersal in island plant populations,” Journal of Ecology, vol. 84, no. 1, pp. 53–61, 1996. View at Scopus
- T. Day and K. A. Young, “Competitive and facilitative evolutionary diversification,” BioScience, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 101–109, 2004. View at Scopus
- P. R. Grant and B. R. Grant, “Phenotypic and genetic effects of hybridization in Darwin's finches,” Evolution, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 297–316, 1994. View at Scopus
- J. M. Bullock and R. T. Clarke, “Long distance seed dispersal by wind: measuring and modelling the tail of the curve,” Oecologia, vol. 124, no. 4, pp. 506–521, 2000. View at Scopus
- SRTM, “Shuttle Radar Topography Mission: Mapping the world in 3 dimensions,” 2004, http://srtm.usgs.gov.
- E. Rodríguez, C. S. Morris, and J. E. Belz, “A global assessment of the SRTM performance,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 249–260, 2006. View at Scopus
- A. Mauchamp, I. Aldaz, E. Ortiz, and H. Valdebenito, “Threatened species, a re-evaluation of the status of eight endemic plants of the Galapagos,” Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 97–107, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- C. K. McMullen, Flowering Plants of the Galápagos, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, USA, 1999.
- D. Schluter, The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2000.
- M. Rejmánek and D. M. Richardson, “What attributes make some plant species more invasive?” Ecology, vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 1655–1661, 1996. View at Scopus
- G. Paulay, “Biodiversity on oceanic islands: its origin and extinction,” American Zoologist, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 134–144, 1994. View at Scopus
- C. Rahbek, “The elevational gradient of species richness: a uniform pattern?” Ecography, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 200–205, 1995. View at Scopus
- INEC, (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Censos), Censo de poblacion y v de vivienda—Galápagos, 2007.
- S. A. Levin, “The problem of pattern and scale in ecology,” Ecology, vol. 73, no. 6, pp. 1943–1967, 1992. View at Scopus
- J. Grehan, “Biogeography and evolution of the Galapagos: integration of the biological and geological evidence,” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 267–287, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- J. J. Wiens and M. J. Donoghue, “Historical biogeography, ecology and species richness,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 19, no. 12, pp. 639–644, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- E. O. Wilson, “Adaptive shift and dispersal in a tropical ant fauna,” Evolution, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 122–144, 1959.
- E. O. Wilson, “The nature of the taxon cycle in the Melanesian ant fauna,” American Naturalist, vol. 95, no. 882, pp. 169–193, 1961.
- R. E. Ricklefs and E. Bermingham, “The concept of the taxon cycle in biogeography,” Global Ecology and Biogeography, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 353–361, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- S. P. Hubbell, The Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity and Biogeography, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA, 2001.
- W. R. Peltier and A. M. Tushingham, “Global sea level rise and the greenhouse effect: might they be connected?” Science, vol. 244, no. 4906, pp. 806–810, 1989. View at Scopus
- J. D. Baker, C. L. Littnan, and D. W. Johnson, “Potential effects of sea level rise on the terrestrial habitats of endangered and endemic megafauna in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands,” Endangered Species Research, vol. 2, pp. 1–10, 2006.
- M. Gottfried, H. Pauli, K. Reiter, and G. Grabherr, “A fine-scaled predictive model for changes in species distribution patterns of high mountain plants induced by climate warming,” Diversity and Distributions, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 241–251, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- L. Hughes, “Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent?” Trends in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 56–61, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- K. Huelber, M. Gottfried, H. Pauli, K. Reiter, M. Winkler, and G. Grabherr, “Phenological responses of snowbed species to snow removal dates in the Central Alps: implications for climate warming,” Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 99–103, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus