Table 1: Model designs to explain variation in loss of grouse chicks during 2 summer months in study areas of South Ostrobothnia and Oulu in western Finland.

Model Sign of correlation Hypothesis 1 Voles + APH 2 Voles, area +, area effect APH 3 Voles, area, area*voles +, 0, area effect APH 4 Goshawk − MPH 5 Goshawk, area −, area effect MPH 6 Goshawk, voles −, + PFH 7 Goshawk, area, voles, area*voles −, +, 0, area effect PFH 8 Goshawk, voles, weather −, +, + PFH, weather 9 Weather + Weather 10 Global model