Hypothetical vicious circle of decreased glomerular function, endothelial injury, and tubular damage in heart failure. GFR: glomerular filtration rate. NGAL: neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin. NAG: N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase. KIM-1: kidney injury molecule 1. Adapted and reprinted with permission from Norman and Fine [59] and Damman et al. [60].
