Journal Menu
- About this Journal
- Abstracting and Indexing
- Aims and Scope
- Article Processing Charges
- Articles in Press
- Author Guidelines
- Bibliographic Information
- Citations to this Journal
- Contact Information
- Editorial Board
- Editorial Workflow
- Free eTOC Alerts
- Publication Ethics
- Reviewers Acknowledgment
- Submit a Manuscript
- Subscription Information
- Table of Contents
International Journal of Pediatrics
Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 120139, 14 pages
doi:10.1155/2012/120139
Review Article
How Can the Microbiologist Help in Diagnosing Neonatal Sepsis?
Unit of Microbiology, Department of Haematology and Oncology “L. e A. Seràgnoli”, University of Bologna, Via Massarenti 9, 40138 Bologna, Italy
Received 23 June 2011; Revised 15 September 2011; Accepted 29 November 2011
Academic Editor: Paul T. Heath
Copyright © 2012 Michela Paolucci et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Linked References
- M. Singh, “Perinatal infections,” in Care of the Newborn, M. Singh, Ed., pp. 198–221, New Delhi, India, 5th edition, 1999.
- B. Chacko and I. Sohi, “Early onset neonatal sepsis,” Indian Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 23–26, 2005. View at Scopus
- G. Klinger, I. Levy, L. Sirota, V. Boyko, B. Reichman, and L. Lerner-Geva, “Epidemiology and risk factors for early onset sepsis among very-low-birthweight infants,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 201, no. 1, pp. 38.e1–38.e6, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- N. Jean-Baptiste, D. K. Benjamin Jr., M. Cohen-Wolkowiez, et al., “Coagulase-negative staphylococcal infections in the neonatal intensive care unit,” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, vol. 32, no. 7, pp. 679–686, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- J. A. Regan, M. A. Klebanoff, R. P. Nugent et al., “Colonization with group B streptococci in pregnancy and adverse outcome,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 174, no. 4, pp. 1354–1360, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
- CDC, “Trends in perinatal group B streptococcal disease—United States, 2000–2006,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 109–112, 2009.
- C. R. Phares, R. Lynfield, M. M. Farley et al., “Epidemiology of invasive group B streptococcal disease in the United States, 1999–2005,” Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 299, no. 17, pp. 2056–2065, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- V. Nizet, P. Ferrieri, and C. E. Rubens, “Molecular pathogenesis of group B streptococcal disease in newborns,” in Streptococcal Infections: Clinical Aspects, Microbiology, and Molecular Pathogenesis, D. Stevens, Ed., pp. 180–221, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA, 2000.
- K. M. Boyer, C. A. Gadzala, P. D. Kelly, L. I. Burd, and S. P. Gotoff, “Selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of neonatal group B streptococcal early-onset disease. II. Predictive value of prenatal cultures,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 148, no. 5, pp. 802–809, 1983. View at Scopus
- S. Schrag, R. Gorwitz, K. Fultz-Butts, and A. Schuchat, “Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease. Revised guidelines from CDC,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 51, no. 11, pp. 1–22, 2002. View at Scopus
- M. S. Badri, S. Zawaneh, A. C. Cruz, et al., “Rectal colonization with group B streptococcus: relation to vaginal colonization of pregnant women,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 135, no. 2, pp. 308–312, 1977.
- H. W. Wilkinson, “CAMP-disk test for presumptive identification of group B streptococci,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 42–45, 1977. View at Scopus
- C. Guerrero, J. Martínez, A. Menasalvas, R. Blázquez, T. Rodríguez, and M. Segovia, “Use of direct latex agglutination testing of selective broth in the detection of group B strepptococcal carriage in pregnant women,” European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 61–62, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- CDC, “Laboratory practices for prenatal group B streptococcal screening and reporting—Connecticut, Georgia, Minnesota, 1997-1998,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 48, no. 20, pp. 426–428, 1999.
- M. Votava, M. Tejkalová, M. Drábková, V. Unzeitig, and I. Braveny, “Use of GBS media for rapid detection of group B streptococci in vaginal and rectal swabs from women in labor,” European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 120–122, 2001.
- A. Tazi, H. Réglier-Poupet, F. Dautezac, J. Raymond, and C. Poyart, “Comparative evaluation of Strepto B ID®chromogenic medium and Granada media for the detection of group B streptococcus from vaginal samples of pregnant women,” Journal of Microbiological Methods, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 263–265, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- C. J. Baker, “Inadequacy of rapid immunoassays for intrapartum detection of group B streptococcal carriers,” Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 88, no. 1, pp. 51–55, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- R. Samadi, A. Stek, and J. S. Greenspoon, “Evaluation of a rapid optical immunoassay-based test for group B streptococcus colonization in intrapartum patients,” Journal of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 203–208, 2001. View at Scopus
- D. Kaufman and K. D. Fairchild, “Clinical microbiology of bacterial and fungal sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 638–680, 2004, table of contents. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- K. M. Ryan, S. G. Lencki, B. L. Elder, W. I. Northern, H. J. Khamis, and J. A. Bofill, “DNA probe for β-hemolytic group B streptococcus: diagnostic accuracy in threatened preterm labor,” Journal of Reproductive Medicine for the Obstetrician and Gynecologist, vol. 44, no. 7, pp. 587–591, 1999. View at Scopus
- N. Williams-Bouyer, B. S. Reisner, and G. L. Woods, “Comparison of gen-probe AccuProbe group B streptococcus culture identification test with conventional culture for the detection of group B streptococci in broth cultures of vaginal-anorectal specimens from pregnant women,” Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 159–162, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
- N. S. Montague, T. J. Cleary, O. V. Martinez, and G. W. Procop, “Detection of group B streptococci in Lim broth by use of group B streptococcus peptide nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization and selective and nonselective agars,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 3470–3472, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- H. Peltroche-Llacsahuanga, M. J. Fiandaca, S. von Oy, R. Lütticken, and G. Haase, “Rapid detection of streptococcus agalactiae from swabs by peptide nucleic acid fluorescence in situ hybridization,” Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 179–184, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- J. S. Goodrich and M. B. Miller, “Comparison of culture and 2 real-time polymerase chain reaction assays to detect group B streptococcus during antepartum screening,” Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 17–22, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- T. Block, E. Munson, A. Culver, K. Vaughan, and J. E. Hryciuk, “Comparison of carrot broth-and selective Todd-Hewitt broth-enhanced PCR protocols for real-time detection of streptococcus agalactiae in prenatal vaginal/anorectal specimens,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 46, no. 11, pp. 3615–3620, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- H. D. Davies, M. A. Miller, S. Faro, D. Gregson, S. C. Kehl, and J. A. Jordan, “Multicenter study of a rapid molecular-based assay for the diagnosis of group B streptococcus colonization in pregnant women,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 39, no. 8, pp. 1129–1135, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- N. Aziz, E. J. Baron, H. D'Souza, M. Nourbakhsh, M. L. Druzin, and W. E. Benitz, “Comparison of rapid intrapartum screening methods for group B streptococcal vaginal colonization,” Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 225–229, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- K. L. Atkins, R. M. Atkinson, A. Shanks, C. A. Parvin, W. M. Dunne, and G. Gross, “Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction for group B streptococcus detection using an improved culture method,” Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 108, no. 3, pp. 488–491, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. Gavino and E. Wang, “A comparison of a new rapid real-time polymerase chain reaction system to traditional culture in determining group B streptococcus colonization,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 197, no. 4, pp. 388.e1–388.e4, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- D. Smith, J. D. Perry, L. Laine, A. Galloway, and F. K. Gould, “Comparison of BD GeneOhm real-time polymerase chain reaction with chromogenic and conventional culture methods for detection of group B streptococcus in clinical samples,” Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 369–372, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- R. K. Edwards, S. M. Novak-Weekley, P. P. Koty, T. Davis, L. J. Leeds, and J. A. Jordan, “Rapid group B streptococci screening using a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay,” Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 111, no. 6, pp. 1335–1341, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- D. Money, S. Dobson, L. Cole et al., “An evaluation of a rapid real time polymerase chain reaction assay for detection of group B streptococcus as part of a neonatal group B streptococcus prevention strategy,” Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, vol. 30, no. 9, pp. 770–775, 2008. View at Scopus
- N. E. Helali, J. C. Nguyen, A. Ly, Y. Giovangrandi, and L. Trinquart, “Diagnostic accuracy of a rapid real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for universal intrapartum group b streptococcus screening,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 417–423, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. J. Alfa, S. Sepehri, P. de Gagne, M. Helawa, G. Sandhu, and G. K. M. Harding, “Real-time PCR assay provides reliable assessment of intrapartum carriage of group B streptococcus,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 48, no. 9, pp. 3095–3099, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- L. M. Scicchitano and P. P. Bourbeau, “Comparative evaluation of the AccuProbe group B streptococcus culture test, the BD GeneOhm Strep B assay, and culture for detection of group B streptococci in pregnant women,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 47, no. 9, pp. 3021–3023, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- J. R. Verani, L. McGee, and S. J. Schrag, “Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease revised guidelines from CDC, 2010,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 59, no. 10, pp. 1–36, 2010. View at Scopus
- J. Thinkhamrop, S. Limpongsanurak, M. R. Festin et al., “Infections in international pregnancy study: performance of the optical immunoassay test for detection of group B streptococcus,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 41, no. 11, pp. 5288–5290, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- H. Honest, S. Sharma, and K. S. Khan, “Rapid tests for group B streptococcus colonization in laboring women: a systematic review,” Pediatrics, vol. 117, no. 4, pp. 1055–1066, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- J. Daniels, J. Gray, H. Pattison et al., “Rapid testing for group B streptococcus during labour: a test accuracy study with evaluation of acceptability and cost-effectiveness.,” Health Technology Assessment, vol. 13, no. 42, pp. 1–154, 2009. View at Scopus
- D. J. Isaacman, R. B. Karasic, E. A. Reynolds, and S. I. Kost, “Effect of number of blood cultures and volume of blood on detection of bacteremia in children,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 128, no. 2, pp. 190–195, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- A. G. Kaditis, A. S. O'Marcaigh, K. H. Rhodes, A. L. Weaver, and N. K. Henry, “Yield of positive blood cultures in pediatric oncology patients by a new method of blood culture collection,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 615–620, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- T. G. Connell, M. Rele, D. Cowley, J. P. Buttery, and N. Curtis, “How reliable is a negative blood culture result? Volume of blood submitted for culture in routine practice in a children's hospital,” Pediatrics, vol. 119, no. 5, pp. 891–896, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- R. L. Schelonka, M. K. Chai, B. A. Yoder, D. Hensley, R. M. Brockett, and D. P. Ascher, “Volume of blood required to detect common neonatal pathogens,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 129, no. 2, pp. 275–278, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- D. N. Greenberg, D. P. Ascher, B. A. Yoder, D. M. Hensley, H. S. Heiman, and J. F. Keith III, “Sensitivity and specificity of rapid diagnostic tests for detection of group B streptococcal antigen in bacteremic neonates,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 193–198, 1995. View at Scopus
- M. Williamson, S. H. Fraser, and M. Tilse, “Failure of the urinary group B streptococcal antigen test as a screen for neonatal sepsis,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 73, no. 2, pp. F109–F111, 1995. View at Scopus
- J. A. Becker, D. P. Ascher, J. Mendiola et al., “False-negative urine latex particle agglutination testing in neonates with group B streptococcal bacteremia: a function of improper test implementation?” Clinical Pediatrics, vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 467–471, 1993. View at Scopus
- E. D. G. McIntosh and H. E. Jeffery, “Clinical application of urine antigen detection in early onset group B streptococcal disease,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 67, no. 10, pp. 1198–1200, 1992. View at Scopus
- W. E. Hachey and T. E. Wiswell, “Limitations in the usefulness of urine latex particle agglutination tests and hematologic measurements in diagnosing neonatal sepsis during the first week of life,” Journal of Perinatology, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 240–245, 1992. View at Scopus
- S. M. Golden, D. M. Stamilio, B. M. Faux et al., “Evaluation of a real-time fluorescent PCR assay for rapid detection of group B Streptococci in neonatal blood,” Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 7–13, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- C. Y. Lin, C. H. Hsu, F. Y. Huang et al., “The changing face of early-onset neonatal sepsis after the implementation of a maternal group B streptococcus screening and intrapartum prophylaxis policy-a study in one medical center,” Pediatrics and Neonatology, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 78–84, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- B. J. Stoll, N. I. Hansen, P. J. Sánchez et al., “Early onset neonatal sepsis: the burden of group B streptococcal and E. coli disease continues,” Pediatrics, vol. 127, no. 5, pp. 817–826, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- B. J. Stoll, N. Hansen, A. A. Fanaroff et al., “Changes in pathogens causing early-onset sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 347, no. 4, pp. 240–247, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- C. V. Towers, M. H. Cart, G. Padilla, and T. Asrat, “Potential consequences of widespread antepartal use of ampicillin,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 179, no. 4, pp. 879–883, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- K. Mayor-Lynn, V. H. González-Quintero, M. J. O'Sullivan, A. I. Hartstein, S. Roger, and M. Tamayo, “Comparison of early-onset neonatal sepsis caused by Escherichia coli and group B streptococcus,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 192, no. 5, pp. 1437–1439, 2005.
- J. I. Alos, T. Lambert, and P. Courvalin, “Comparison of two molecular methods for tracing nosocomial transmission of Escherichia coli K1 in a neonatal unit,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 1704–1709, 1993. View at Scopus
- D. Senerwa, O. Olsvik, L. N. Mutanda et al., “Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli serotype O111: HNT isolated from preterm neonates in Nairobi, Kenya,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 1307–1311, 1989. View at Scopus
- M. E. Speer, L. H. Taber, M. D. Yow, A. J. Rudolph, J. Urteaga, and S. Waller, “Fulminant neonatal sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis associated with a “nonenteropathogenic” strain of Escherichia coli,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 91–95, 1976.
- C. A. Friesen and C. T. Cho, “Characteristic features of neonatal sepsis due to Haemophilus influenzae,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 777–780, 1986. View at Scopus
- A. Schuchat, S. S. Zywicki, M. J. Dinsmoor et al., “Risk factors and opportunities for prevention of early-onset neonatal sepsis: a multicenter case-control study,” Pediatrics, vol. 105, no. 1, pp. 21–26, 2000. View at Scopus
- B. G. Gellin, C. V. Broome, W. F. Bibb, R. E. Weaver, S. Gaventa, and L. Mascola, “The epidemiology of listeriosis in the United States–1986,” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 133, no. 4, pp. 392–401, 1991.
- H. Hof, R. Lampidis, and J. Bensch, “Nosocomial listeria gastroenteritis in a newborn, confirmed by random amplification of polymorphic DNA,” Clinical Microbiology and Infection, vol. 6, no. 12, pp. 683–686, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- A. Schuchat, C. Lizano, C. V. Broome, B. Swaminathan, C. Kim, and K. Winn, “Outbreak of neonatal listeriosis associated with mineral oil,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 183–189, 1991. View at Scopus
- B. Muller-Pebody, A. P. Johnson, P. T. Heath, R. E. Gilbert, K. L. Henderson, and M. Sharland, “Empirical treatment of neonatal sepsis: are the current guidelines adequate?” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. F4–F8, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- S. Vergnano, E. Menson, N. Kennea et al., “Neonatal infections in England: the neonIN surveillance network,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. F9–F14, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. Cohen-Wolkowiez, C. Moran, D. K. Benjamin et al., “Early and late onset sepsis in late preterm infants,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 1052–1056, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- P. N. le Souef and B. N. J. Walters, “Neonatal listeriosis. A summer outbreak,” Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 188–191, 1981. View at Scopus
- R. Romero, H. N. Winn, M. Wan, and J. C. Hobbins, “Listeria monocytogenes chorioamnionitis and preterm labor,” American Journal of Perinatology, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 286–288, 1988. View at Scopus
- C. B. Wilson and D. B. Lewis, “Basis and implications of selectively diminished cytokine production in neonatal susceptibility to infection,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases, vol. 12, supplement 4, pp. S410–S420, 1990. View at Scopus
- R. Mitchell, “Listeria and Erysipelothrix,” in Mackie and McCartney Practical Medical Microbiology, pp. 309–312, 14th edition.
- A. Schuchat, B. Swaminathan, and C. V. Broome, “Epidemiology of human listeriosis,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 169–183, 1991. View at Scopus
- S. Samanta, K. Farrer, A. Breathnach, and P. T. Heath, “Risk factors for late onset gram-negative infections: a case-control study,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. F15–F18, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- L. C. Downey, P. B. Smith, and D. K. Benjamin Jr., “Risk factors and prevention of late-onset sepsis in premature infants,” Early Human Development, vol. 86, supplement 1, pp. 7–12, 2010. View at Scopus
- B. J. Stoll, N. Hansen, A. A. Fanaroff et al., “Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: the experience of the NICHD neonatal research network,” Pediatrics, vol. 110, no. 2, pp. 285–291, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- J. H. Jiang, N. C. Chiu, F. Y. Huang et al., “Neonatal sepsis in the neonatal intensive care unit: characteristics of early versus late onset,” Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 301–306, 2004. View at Scopus
- M. Tojo, N. Yamashita, D. A. Goldmann, and G. B. Pier, “Isolation and characterization of a capsular polysaccharide adhesin from Staphylococcus epidermidis,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 157, no. 4, pp. 713–722, 1988. View at Scopus
- H. Shiro, G. Meluleni, A. Groll et al., “The pathogenic role of Staphylococcus epidermidis capsular polysaccharide/adhesin in a low-inoculum rabbit model of prosthetic valve endocarditis,” Circulation, vol. 92, no. 9, pp. 2715–2722, 1995. View at Scopus
- C. T. D'Angio, K. L. McGowan, S. Baumgart, S. J. Geme, and M. C. Harris, “Surface colonization with coagulase-negative staphylococci in premature neonates,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 114, no. 6, pp. 1029–1034, 1989. View at Scopus
- B. Adam, G. S. Baillie, and L. J. Douglas, “Mixed species biofilms of Candida albicans and Staphylococcus epidermidis,” Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 344–349, 2002. View at Scopus
- M. A. C. Hemels, A. van den Hoogen, M. A. Verboon-Maciolek, A. Fleer, and T. G. Krediet, “Prevention of neonatal late-onset sepsis associated with the removal of percutaneously inserted central venous catheters in preterm infants,” Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 445–448, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- W. Freeman, D. C. Weir, J. E. Whitehead et al., “Association between risk factors for coronary heart disease in schoolboys and adult mortality rates in the same localities,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 78–83, 1990. View at Scopus
- C. Avila-Figueroa, D. A. Goldmann, D. K. Richardson, J. E. Gray, A. Ferrari, and J. Freeman, “Intravenous lipid emulsions are the major determinant of coagulase-negative staphylococcal bacteremia in very low birth weight newborns,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 10–17, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- M. G. Karlowicz, E. S. Buescher, and A. E. Surka, “Fulminant late-onset sepsis in a neonatal intensive care unit, 1988–1997, and the impact of avoiding empiric vancomycin therapy,” Pediatrics, vol. 106, no. 6, pp. 1387–1390, 2000. View at Scopus
- H. A. Lassiter, S. W. Watson, M. L. Seifring, and J. E. Tanner, “Complement factor 9 deficiency in serum of human neonates,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 166, no. 1, pp. 53–57, 1992. View at Scopus
- N. Y. Boo, A. J. Nordiah, H. Alfizah, A. H. Nor-Rohaini, and V. K. Lim, “Contamination of breast milk obtained by manual expression and breast pumps in mothers of very low birthweight infants,” Journal of Hospital Infection, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 274–281, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- L. G. Donowitz, F. J. Marsik, K. A. Fisher, and R. P. Wenzel, “Contaminated breast milk: a source of Klebsiella bacteremia in a newborn intensive care unit,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 716–720, 1981. View at Scopus
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Enterobacter sakazakii infections associated with the use of powdered infant formula—Tennessee, 2001,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 51, no. 14, pp. 297–300, 2002.
- Ü. Parm, T. Metsvaht, E. Sepp et al., “Mucosal surveillance cultures in predicting Gram-negative late-onset sepsis in neonatal intensive care units,” Journal of Hospital Infection, vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 327–332, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- U. Arora and J. Jaitwani, “Acinetobacter spp.–an emerging pathogen in neonatal septicemia in Amritsar,” Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 24, no. 1, p. 81, 2006. View at Scopus
- X. Corbella, A. Montero, M. Pujol et al., “Emergence and rapid spread of carbapenem resistance during a large and sustained hospital outbreak of multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 4086–4095, 2000. View at Scopus
- S. Roy, S. Basu, S. Dasgupta, A. K. Singh, and R. Viswanathan, “Carbapenem resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii isolated from blood of neonates with sepsis,” Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 416–417, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- Y. C. Huang, Y. H. Chou, L. H. Su, R. I. Lien, and T. Y. Lin, “Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization and its association with infection among infants hospitalized in neonatal intensive care units,” Pediatrics, vol. 118, no. 2, pp. 469–474, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- S. I. Gerber, R. C. Jones, M. V. Scott et al., “Management of outbreaks of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in the neonatal intensive care unit: a consensus statement,” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 139–145, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- K. S. Ko, S. Park, K. R. Peck et al., “Molecular characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus spread by neonates transferred from primary obstetrics clinics to a tertiary care hospital in Korea,” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 593–597, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- H. Sax, K. Posfay-Barbe, S. Harbarth et al., “Control of a cluster of community-associated, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in neonatology,” Journal of Hospital Infection, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 93–100, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- P. Behari, J. Englund, G. Alcasid, S. Garcia-Houchins, and S. G. Weber, “Transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus to preterm infants through breast milk,” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 778–780, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- S. Denniston and F. A. I. Riordan, “Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in children and neonates: a 10 year retrospective review,” Journal of Infection, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 387–393, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- R. M. Fortunov, K. G. Hulten, W. A. Hammerman, E. O. Mason Jr., and S. L. Kaplan, “Evaluation and treatment of community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus infections in term and late-preterm previously healthy neonates,” Pediatrics, vol. 120, no. 5, pp. 937–945, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- J. Watson, R. C. Jones, C. Cortes et al., “Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection among healthy newborns–Chicago and Los Angeles County, 2004,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 55, no. 12, pp. 329–332, 2006. View at Scopus
- S. M. H. Aletayeb, A. D. Khosravi, M. Dehdashtian, F. Kompani, S. M. Mortazavi, and M. R. Aramesh, “Identification of bacterial agents and antimicrobial susceptibility of neonatal sepsis: a 54-month study in a tertiary hospital,” African Journal of Microbiology Research, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 528–531, 2011.
- A. Jain and R. Mondal, “Prevalence & antimicrobial resistance pattern of extended spectrum β-lactamase producing Klebsiella spp isolated from cases of neonatal septicaemia,” Indian Journal of Medical Research, vol. 125, no. 1, pp. 89–94, 2007. View at Scopus
- C. Mammina, P. di Carlo, D. Cipolla et al., “Surveillance of multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacilli in a neonatal intensive care unit: prominent role of cross transmission,” American Journal of Infection Control, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 222–230, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- V. Crivaro, M. Bagattini, M. F. Salza et al., “Risk factors for extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Serratia marcescens and Klebsiella pneumoniae acquisition in a neonatal intensive care unit,” Journal of Hospital Infection, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 135–141, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- D. R. Linkin, N. O. Fishman, J. B. Patel, J. D. Merrill, and E. Lautenbach, “Risk factors for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing enterobacteriaceae in a neonatal intensive care unit,” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 781–783, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- C. L. Pessoa-Silva, B. M. Moreira, V. C. Almeida, et al., “Extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a neonatal intensive care unit: risk factors for infection and colonization,” Journal of Hospital Infection, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 198–206, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
- K. Kristóf, D. Szabó, J. W. Marsh et al., “Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella spp. in a neonatal intensive care unit: risk factors for the infection and the dynamics of the molecular epidemiology,” European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 563–570, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- J. Klein and S. Marcy, “Bacterial sepsis and meningitidis,” in Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant, J. S. Remington and J. O. Klein, Eds., pp. 601–656, WB Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa, USA, 3rd edition, 1990.
- B. Stenson, “Blood cultures volume from neonates,” 1999.
- Becton Dickinson Microbiological Systems, BECTEC PEDS PLUS/F Culture Vials: Instruction Leaflet, Becton Dickinson and Company, Sparks, Md, USA, 2000.
- J. Buttery, M. Herbert, I. Tallach, et al., Neonatal Blood Cultures: How Much Blood Do We Take?European Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Istanbul, Turkey.
- D. E. Dietzman, G. W. Fischer, and F. D. Schoenknecht, “Neonatal Escherichia coli septicemia–bacterial counts in blood,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 85, no. 1, pp. 128–130, 1974. View at Scopus
- J. A. Washington II and D. M. Ilstrup, “Blood cultures: issues and controversies,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 792–802, 1986. View at Scopus
- J. A. Kellogg, F. L. Ferrentino, M. H. Goodstein, J. Liss, S. L. Shapiro, and D. A. Bankert, “Frequency of low level bacteremia in infants from birth to two months of age,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 381–385, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- J. A. Kellogg, J. P. Manzella, and D. A. Bankert, “Frequency of low-level bacteremia in children from birth to fifteen years of age,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 2181–2185, 2000. View at Scopus
- S. E. Phillips and J. S. Bradley, “Bacteremia detected by lysis direct plating in a neonatal intensive care unit,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 1–4, 1990. View at Scopus
- P. Kite, V. Langdale, N. Todd, M. R. Millar, and P. MacKay, “Direct isolation of coagulase-negative staphylococci from neonatal blood samples,” Journal of Hospital Infection, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 135–140, 1989. View at Scopus
- W. A. Durbin, E. G. Szymczak, and D. A. Goldmann, “Quantitative blood cultures in childhood bacteremia,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 92, no. 5, pp. 778–780, 1978. View at Scopus
- D. F. Welch, R. K. Scribner, and D. Hensel, “Evaluation of a lysis direct plating method for pediatric blood cultures,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 955–958, 1985. View at Scopus
- D. R. Brown, D. Kutler, B. Rai, T. Chan, and M. Cohen, “Bacterial concentration and blood volume required for a positive blood culture,” Journal of Perinatology, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 157–159, 1995. View at Scopus
- F. Solorzano-Santos, M. G. Miranda-Novales, B. Leanos-Miranda, H. Diaz-Ponce, and G. Palacios-Saucedo, “A blood micro-culture system for the diagnosis of bacteremia in pediatric patients,” Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 481–483, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
- M. D. Aronson and D. H. Bor, “Blood cultures,” Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 106, no. 2, pp. 246–253, 1987. View at Scopus
- R. Auckenthaler, D. M. Ilstrup, and J. A. Washington II, “Comparison of recovery of organisms from blood cultures diluted 10% (volume/volume) and 20% (volume/volume),” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 860–864, 1982. View at Scopus
- J. K. Kennaugh, W. W. Gregory, K. R. Powell, and J. O. Hendley, “The effect of dilution during culture on detection of low concentrations of bacteria in blood,” Pediatric Infectious Disease, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 317–318, 1984. View at Scopus
- A. L. Kovatch and E. R. Wald, “Evaluation of the febrile neonate,” Seminars in Perinatology, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 12–19, 1985.
- R. L. Wientzen Jr. and G. H. McCracken Jr., “Pathogenesis and management of neonatal sepsis and meningitis,” Current Problems in Pediatrics, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 1–61, 1977. View at Scopus
- T. E. Wiswell and W. E. Hachey, “Multiple site blood cultures in the initial evaluation for neonatal sepsis during the first week of life,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 365–369, 1991. View at Scopus
- H. D. Wilson and H. F. Eichenwald, “Sepsis neonatorum,” Pediatric Clinics of North America, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 571–582, 1974. View at Scopus
- S. P. Gotoff and R. E. Behrman, “Neonatal septicemia,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 142–153, 1970. View at Scopus
- F. R. Cockerill III, J. G. Hughes, E. A. Vetter et al., “Analysis of 281,797 consecutive blood cultures performed over an eight-year period: trends in microorganisms isolated and the value of anaerobic culture of blood,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 403–418, 1997. View at Scopus
- D. C. Shanson, “Blood culture technique: current controversies,” Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 25, supplement C, pp. 17–29, 1990.
- A. A. Fanaroff, S. B. Korones, L. L. Wright et al., “Incidence, presenting features, risk factors and significance of late onset septicemia in very low birth weight infants,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 17, no. 7, pp. 593–598, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
- B. J. Stoll, T. Gordon, S. B. Korones et al., “Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: a report from the national institute of child health and human development neonatal research network,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 129, no. 1, pp. 63–71, 1996. View at Scopus
- J. S. Abramson, K. D. Hampton, S. Babu, B. L. Wasilauskas, and M. J. Marcon, “The use of C-reactive protein from cerebrospinal fluid for differentiating meningitis from other central nervous system diseases,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 151, no. 5, pp. 854–858, 1985.
- M. E. Weisse, J. W. Bass, and L. M. Young, “Pediatric blood culture: comparison of yields using aerobic, anaerobic and hypertonic media,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 123–125, 1992. View at Scopus
- P. Yagupsky and F. S. Nolte, “Quantitative aspects of septicemia,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 269–279, 1990. View at Scopus
- S. Sarkar, I. Bhagat, J. D. DeCristofaro, T. E. Wiswell, and A. R. Spitzer, “A study of the role of multiple site blood cultures in the evaluation of neonatal sepsis,” Journal of Perinatology, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 18–22, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- J. Li, J. J. Plorde, and L. G. Carlson, “Effects of volume and periodicity on blood cultures,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 32, no. 11, pp. 2829–2831, 1994. View at Scopus
- K. Guerti, H. Devos, M. M. Ieven, and L. M. Mahieu, “Time to positivity of neonatal blood cultures: fast and furious?” Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 60, no. 4, pp. 446–453, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- J. P. Buttery, “Blood cultures in newborns and children: optimising an everyday test,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 87, no. 1, pp. F25–F28, 2002. View at Scopus
- J. D. Thylefors, S. Harbarth, and D. Pittet, “Increasing bacteremia due to coagulase-negative staphylococci: fiction or reality?” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, vol. 19, no. 8, pp. 581–589, 1998. View at Scopus
- M. P. Weinstein, “Current blood culture methods and systems: clinical concepts, technology, and interpretation of results,” Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 40–46, 1996. View at Scopus
- M. K. Hurst and B. A. Yoder, “Detection of bacteremia in young infants: is 48 hours adequate?” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 711–713, 1995. View at Scopus
- K. L. McGowan, J. A. Foster, and S. E. Coffin, “Outpatient pediatric blood cultures: time to positivity,” Pediatrics, vol. 106, no. 2, pp. 251–255, 2000. View at Scopus
- M. Fujimori, K. Hisata, S. Nagata et al., “Efficacy of bacterial ribosomal RNA-targeted reverse transcription-quantitative PCR for detecting neonatal sepsis: a case control study,” BMC Pediatrics, vol. 10, p. 53, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- A. del Vecchio, N. Laforgia, M. Capasso, A. Iolascon, and G. Latini, “The role of molecular genetics in the pathogenesis and diagnosis of neonatal sepsis,” Clinics in Perinatology, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 53–67, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- J. A. Jordan and M. B. Durso, “Real-time polymerase chain reaction for detecting bacterial DNA directly from blood of neonates being evaluated for sepsis,” Journal of Molecular Diagnostics, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 575–581, 2005. View at Scopus
- C. M. Cotten, S. Taylor, B. Stoll et al., “Prolonged duration of initial empirical antibiotic treatment is associated with increased rates of necrotizing enterocolitis and death for extremely low birth weight infants,” Pediatrics, vol. 123, no. 1, pp. 58–66, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. Paolucci, M. P. Landini, and V. Sambri, “Conventional and molecular techniques for the early diagnosis of bacteraemia,” International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, vol. 36, supplement 2, pp. S6–S16, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- M. Venkatesh, A. Flores, R. A. Luna, and J. Versalovic, “Molecular microbiological methods in the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis,” Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, vol. 8, no. 9, pp. 1037–1048, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- C. R. Woese, “Bacterial evolution,” Microbiological Reviews, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 221–271, 1987. View at Scopus
- D. A. Relman, “The search for unrecognized pathogens,” Science, vol. 284, no. 5418, pp. 1308–1310, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
- U. Evertsson, H. J. Monstein, and A. G. Johansson, “Detection and identification of fungi in blood using broad-range 28S rDNA PCR amplification and species-specific hybridisation,” APMIS, vol. 108, no. 5, pp. 385–392, 2000. View at Scopus
- C. Schabereiter-Gurtner, M. Nehr, P. Apfalter, A. Makristathis, M. L. Rotter, and A. M. Hirschl, “Evaluation of a protocol for molecular broad-range diagnosis of culture-negative bacterial infections in clinical routine diagnosis,” Journal of Applied Microbiology, vol. 104, no. 4, pp. 1228–1237, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- T. Reier-Nilsen, T. Farstad, B. Nakstad, V. Lauvrak, and M. Steinbakk, “Comparison of broad range 16S rDNA PCR and conventional blood culture for diagnosis of sepsis in the newborn: a case control study,” BMC Pediatrics, vol. 9, p. 5, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- N. Laforgia, B. Coppola, R. Carbone, A. Grassi, A. Mautone, and A. Iolascon, “Rapid detection of neonatal sepsis using polymerase chain reaction,” Acta Paediatrica, vol. 86, no. 10, pp. 1097–1099, 1997. View at Scopus
- J. A. Jordan, M. B. Durso, A. R. Butchko, J. G. Jones, and B. S. Brozanski, “Evaluating the near-term infant for early early onset sepsis: progress and challenges to consider 16S rDNA polymerase chain reaction testing,” Journal of Molecular Diagnostics, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 357–363, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- O. Esparcia, M. Montemayor, G. Ginovart et al., “Diagnostic accuracy of a 16S ribosomal DNA gene-based molecular technique (RT-PCR, microarray, and sequencing) for bacterial meningitis, early-onset neonatal sepsis, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis,” Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 153–160, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
- A. K. Yadav, C. G. Wilson, P. L. Prasad, and P. K. Menon, “Polymerase chain reaction in rapid diagnosis of neonatal sepsis,” Indian Pediatrics, vol. 42, no. 7, pp. 681–685, 2005. View at Scopus
- Y. D. Wu, L. H. Chen, X. J. Wu et al., “Gram stain-specific-probe-based real-time PCR for diagnosis and discrimination of bacterial neonatal sepsis,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 2613–2619, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- K. Y. Y. Chan, H. S. Lam, H. M. Cheung et al., “Rapid identification and differentiation of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial bloodstream infections by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in preterm infants,” Critical Care Medicine, vol. 37, no. 8, pp. 2441–2447, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. Enomoto, I. Morioka, T. Morisawa, N. Yokoyama, and M. Matsuo, “A novel diagnostic tool for detecting neonatal infections using multiplex polymerase chain reaction,” Neonatology, vol. 96, no. 2, pp. 102–108, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- S. Dutta, A. Narang, A. Chakraborty, and P. Ray, “Diagnosis of neonatal sepsis using universal primer polymerase chain reaction before and after starting antibiotic drug therapy,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, vol. 163, no. 1, pp. 6–11, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- M. Paolucci, M. G. Capretti, P. dal Monte et al., “Laboratory diagnosis of late-onset sepsis in newborns by multiplex real-time PCR,” Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 533–534, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
- B. Lucignano, S. Ranno, O. Liesenfeld et al., “Multiplex PCR allows rapid and accurate diagnosis of bloodstream infections in newborns and children with suspected sepsis,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 49, no. 6, pp. 2252–2258, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed