Cellulose-Based Bio- and Nanocomposites: A Review

Table 1

Geometrical characteristics of cellulose nanocrystals from various sources: length (L), cross section (D), and aspect ratio (L/d).

Source	L (nm)	D (nm)	L/D	Reference
Acacia pulp	100–250	5–15	—	[105]
Alfa	200	10	20	[106]
Algal (Valonia)	>1,000	10–20	∞	[107, 108]
Bacterial	100–several 1,000	5–10 × 30–50	—	[98, 109, 110]
Banana rachis	500–1,000	5	—	[111]
Bioresidue from wood bioethanol production	several 100	10–20	—	[112]
Capim dourado	300	4.5	67	[113]
Cassava bagasse	360–1,700	2–11	—	[114]
Cladophora	—	20 × 20	—	[115]
Coconut husk fibers	80–500	6	39	[116]
Cotton	100–300	5–15	10	[117–119]
Cottonseed linter	170–490	40–60	—	[120]
Curaúa	80–170	6–10	13-17	[121]
Date palm tree (rachis/leaflets)	260/180	6.1	43/30	[122]
Eucalyptus wood pulp	145	6	24	[123]
Flax	100–500	10–30	15	[124]
Grass Zoysia	200–700	10–60	—	[125, 126]
Hemp	several 1,000	30–100	—	[127]
Luffa cylindrica	242	5.2	47	[128]
MCC	150-300	3–7	—	[100]
Mulberry	400–500	20–40	—	[129]
Pea hull	240–400	7–12	34	[130]
Ramie	350–700	70–120		[97, 131, 132]
	150–250	6–8
Recycled pulp	100–1,800	30–80	—	[133]
Sisal	100–500	3–5	60/43	[99, 134, 135]
	215	5
Sugar beet pulp	210	5	42	[101]
Sugarcane bagasse	200–310	2–6	64	[136]
Tunicin	100–several 1,000	10–20	67	[137]
Wheat straw	150–300	5	45	[103]
Wood	100–300	3–5	50	[115, 138, 139]