Paul W. O'Toole¹ and Jakki C. Cooney²

Copyright © 2008 Paul W. O'Toole and Jakki C. Cooney. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

1. E. Metchnikoff, The Prolongation of Life: Optimistic Studies, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1907.
2. E. Metchnikoff, The Nature of Man: Studies in Optimistic Philosophy, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1908.
3. FAO/WHO, “Health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including powder milk with live lactic acid bacteria,” October 2001, Cordoba, Argentina. Report of a joint FAO/WHO expert consultation on evaluation of health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including powder milk with live lactic acid bacteria, http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/en/probiotics.pdf.
4. R. Fuller, “Probiotics in man and animals,” Journal of Applied Bacteriology, vol. 66, no. 5, pp. 365–378, 1989.
5. F. Guarner and G. J. Schaafsma, “Probiotics,” International Journal of Food Microbiology, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 237–238, 1998.
6. G. W. Tannock, Ed., Probiotics and Prebiotics: Scientific Aspects, G. W. Tannock, Ed., Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, UK, 2005.
7. S. Salminen, C. Bouley, M.-C. Boutron-Ruault, et al., “Functional food science and gastrointestinal physiology and function,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 80, pp. S147–S171, 1998.
8. N. G. Hord, “Eukaryotic-microbiota crosstalk: potential mechanisms for health benefits of prebiotics and probiotics,” Annual Review of Nutrition, vol. 28, pp. 215–231, 2008.
9. M. G. O'Sullivan, G. Thorton, G. C. O'Sullivan, and J. K. Collins, “Probiotic bacteria: myth or reality?,” Trends in Food Science & Technology, vol. 3, pp. 309–314, 1992.
10. G. W. Tannock, “The tangled bank and gut microbial ecology,” in Probiotics and Prebiotics: Scientific Aspects, G. W. Tannock, Ed., pp. 217–223, Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, UK, 2005.
11. S. A. Moser and D. C. Savage, “Bile salt hydrolase activity and resistance to toxicity of conjugated bile salts are unrelated properties in lactobacilli,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 67, no. 8, pp. 3476–3480, 2001.
12. Y. K. Lee, P. S. Ho, C. S. Low, H. Arvilommi, and S. Salminen, “Permanent colonization by Lactobacillus casei is hindered by the low rate of cell division in mouse gut,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 670–674, 2004.
13. H. S. Gill, M. L. Cross, K. J. Rutherfurd, and P. K. Gopal, “Dietary probiotic supplementation to enhance cellular immunity in the elderly,” British Journal of Biomedical Science, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 94–96, 2001.
14. S. K. Mazmanian, J. L. Round, and D. L. Kasper, “A microbial symbiosis factor prevents intestinal inflammatory disease,” Nature, vol. 453, no. 7195, pp. 620–625, 2008.
15. P. Ruas-Madiedo, M. Gueimonde, A. Margolles, C. G. De Los Reyes-Gavilán, and S. Salminen, “Exopolysaccharides produced by probiotic strains modify the adhesion of probiotics and enteropathogens to human intestinal mucus,” Journal of Food Protection, vol. 69, no. 8, pp. 2011–2015, 2006.
16. S. C. Corr, Y. Li, C. U. Riedel, P. W. O'Toole, C. Hill, and C. G. M. Gahan, “Bacteriocin production as a mechanism for the antiinfective activity of Lactobacillus salivarius UCC118,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 104, no. 18, pp. 7617–7621, 2007.
17. K. A. Ryan, P. Daly, Y. Li, C. Hooton, and P. W. O'Toole, “Strain-specific inhibition of Helicobacter pylori by Lactobacillus salivarius and other lactobacilli,” Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 831–834, 2008.
18. M. Hickson, A. L. D'Souza, N. Muthu, et al., “Use of probiotic Lactobacillus preparation to prevent diarrhoea associated with antibiotics: randomised double blind placebo controlled trial,” British Medical Journal, vol. 335, no. 7610, pp. 80–83, 2007.
19. J. M. Saavedra, N. A. Bauman, I. Oung, J. A. Perman, and R. H. Yolken, “Feeding of Bifidobacterium bifidum and Streptococcus thermophilus to infants in hospital for prevention of diarrhoea and shedding of rotavirus,” The Lancet, vol. 344, no. 8929, pp. 1046–1049, 1994.
20. M. D. Luyer, W. A. Buurman, M. Hadfoune, et al., “Strain-specific effects of probiotics on gut barrier integrity following hemorrhagic shock,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 73, no. 6, pp. 3686–3692, 2005.
21. G. Capurso, M. Marignani, and G. Delle Fave, “Probiotics and the incidence of colorectal cancer: when evidence is not evident,” Digestive and Liver Disease, vol. 38, pp. S277–S282, 2006.
22. J. Lee, D. Seto, and L. Bielory, “Meta-analysis of clinical trials of probiotics for prevention and treatment of pediatric atopic dermatitis,” Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, vol. 121, no. 1, pp. 116–121.e11, 2008.
23. I. De Smet, P. De Boever, and W. Verstraete, “Cholesterol lowering in pigs through enhanced bacterial bile salt hydrolase activity,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 79, no. 2, pp. 185–194, 1998.
24. F. A. M. Klaver and R. van der Meer, “The assumed assimilation of cholesterol by lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium bifidum is due to their bile salt-deconjugating activity,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 1120–1124, 1993.
25. J. Tuomilehto, J. Lindström, J. Hyyrynen, et al., “Effect of ingesting sour milk fermented using Lactobacillus helveticus bacteria producing tripeptides on blood pressure in subjects with mild hypertension,” Journal of Human Hypertension, vol. 18, no. 11, pp. 795–802, 2004.
26. D. A. Savaiano, A. AbouElAnouar, D. E. Smith, and M. D. Levitt, “Lactose malabsorption from yogurt, pasteurized yogurt, sweet acidophilus milk, and cultured milk in lactase-deficient individuals,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 1219–1223, 1984.
27. C. Stanton, R. P. Ross, G. F. Fitzgerald, and D. Van Sinderen, “Fermented functional foods based on probiotics and their biogenic metabolites,” Current Opinion in Biotechnology, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 198–203, 2005.
28. H. J. Kim, M. I. Vazquez Roque, M. Camilleri, et al., “A randomized controlled trial of a probiotic combination VSL# 3 and placebo in irritable bowel syndrome with bloating,” Neurogastroenterology and Motility, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 687–696, 2005.
29. P. J. Whorwell, L. Altringer, J. Morel, et al., “Efficacy of an encapsulated probiotic Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 in women with irritable bowel syndrome,” The American Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 101, no. 7, pp. 1581–1590, 2006.
30. G. R. Gibson and M. B. Roberfroid, “Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics,” The Journal of Nutrition, vol. 125, no. 6, pp. 1401–1412, 1995.
31. S. Macfarlane, G. T. Macfarlane, and J. H. Cummings, “Review article: prebiotics in the gastrointestinal tract,” Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 701–714, 2006.
32. G. R. Gibson and R. A. Rastall, Eds., Prebiotics: Development and Application, G. R. Gibson and R. A. Rastall, Eds., John Wiley & sons, Chicester, UK, 2006.
33. L. A. M. van den Broek, S. W. A. Hinz, G. Beldman, J.-P. Vincken, and A. G. J. Voragen, “Bifidobacterium carbohydrases-their role in breakdown and synthesis of (potential) prebiotics,” Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 146–163, 2008.
34. D. Charalampopoulos, R. Wang, S. S. Pandiella, and C. Webb, “Application of cereals and cereal components in functional foods: a review,” International Journal of Food Microbiology, vol. 79, no. 1-2, pp. 131–141, 2002.
35. Food and Drug Administration, “Food labeling; health claims; soluble dietary fiber from certain foods and coronary heart disease. Final rule,” Federal Register, vol. 71, no. 98, pp. 29248–29250, 2006.
36. J. T. Braaten, P. J. Wood, F. W. Scott, et al., “Oat $\beta$-glucan reduces blood cholesterol concentration in hypercholesterolemic subjects,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 48, no. 7, pp. 465–474, 1994.
37. J. T. Braaten, F. W. Scott, P. J. Wood, et al., “High $\beta$-glucan oat bran and oat gum reduce postprandial blood glucose and insulin in subjects with and without type 2 diabetes,” Diabetic Medicine, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 312–318, 1994.
38. W. Y. Chan, P. K. Hui, J. K. C. Chan, et al., “Epithelial damage by Helicobacter pylori in gastric ulcers,” Histopathology, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 47–53, 1991.
39. G. Dongowski, M. Huth, E. Gebhardt, and W. Flamme, “Dietary fiber-rich barley products beneficially affect the intestinal tract of rats,” The Journal of Nutrition, vol. 132, no. 12, pp. 3704–3714, 2002.
40. J. Jaskari, P. Kontula, A. Siitonen, H. Jousimies-Somer, T. Mattila-Sandholm, and K. Poutanen, “Oat $\beta$-glucan and xylan hydrolysates as selective substrates for Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus strains,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 175–181, 1998.
41. J. Snart, R. Bibiloni, T. Grayson, et al., “Supplementation of the diet with high-viscosity beta-glucan results in enrichment for lactobacilli in the rat cecum,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 1925–1931, 2006.
42. D. L. Topping and P. M. Clifton, “Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides,” Physiological Reviews, vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 1031–1064, 2001.
43. O. C. Velázquez, H. M. Lederer, and J. L. Rombeau, “Butyrate and the colonocyte: implications for neoplasia,” Digestive Diseases and Sciences, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 727–739, 1996.
44. A. Suau, R. Bonnet, M. Sutren, et al., “Direct analysis of genes encoding 16S rRNA from complex communities reveals many novel molecular species within the human gut,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 65, no. 11, pp. 4799–4807, 1999.
45. E. G. Zoetendal, A. D. L. Akkermans, and W. M. de Vos, “Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of 16S rRNA from human fecal samples reveals stable and host-specific communities of active bacteria,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 64, no. 10, pp. 3854–3859, 1998.
46. E. G. Zoetendal, A. Von Wright, T. Vilpponen-Salmela, K. Ben-Amor, A. D. L. Akkermans, and W. M. de Vos, “Mucosa-associated bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract are uniformly distributed along the colon and differ from the community recovered from feces,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 68, no. 7, pp. 3401–3407, 2002.
47. E. E. Vaughan, H. G. H. J. Heilig, K. Ben-Amor, and W. M. de Vos, “Diversity, vitality and activities of intestinal lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria assessed by molecular approaches,” FEMS Microbiology Reviews, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 477–490, 2005.
48. E. E. Vaughan, F. Schut, H. G. Heilig, E. G. Zoetendal, W. M. de Vos, and A. D. Akkermans, “A molecular view of the intestinal ecosystem,” Current Issues in Intestinal Microbiology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 2000.
49. C. Lay, L. Rigottier-Gois, K. Holmstrøm, et al., “Colonic microbiota signatures across five northern European countries,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 71, no. 7, pp. 4153–4155, 2005.
50. S. Mueller, K. Saunier, C. Hanisch, et al., “Differences in fecal microbiota in different European study populations in relation to age, gender, and country: a cross-sectional study,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 72, no. 2, pp. 1027–1033, 2006.
51. J. Marchesi and F. Shanahan, “The normal intestinal microbiota,” Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 508–513, 2007.
52. M. Rajilić-Stojanović, H. Smidt, and W. M. de Vos, “Diversity of the human gastrointestinal tract microbiota revisited,” Environmental Microbiology, vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 2125–2136, 2007.
53. H. Hayashi, M. Sakamoto, M. Kitahara, and Y. Benno, “Molecular analysis of fecal microbiota in elderly individuals using 16S rDNA library and T-RFLP,” Microbiology and Immunology, vol. 47, no. 8, pp. 557–570, 2003.
54. P. B. Eckburg, E. M. Bik, C. N. Bernstein, et al., “Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora,” Science, vol. 308, no. 5728, pp. 1635–1638, 2005.
55. E. M. Bik, P. B. Eckburg, S. R. Gill, et al., “Molecular analysis of the bacterial microbiota in the human stomach,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 103, no. 3, pp. 732–737, 2006.
56. S. R. Gill, M. Pop, R. T. DeBoy, et al., “Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome,” Science, vol. 312, no. 5778, pp. 1355–1359, 2006.
57. J. Handelsman, “Metagenomics: application of genomics to uncultured microorganisms,” Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, vol. 68, no. 4, pp. 669–685, 2004.
58. P. J. Turnbaugh, R. E. Ley, M. A. Mahowald, V. Magrini, E. R. Mardis, and J. I. Gordon, “An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest,” Nature, vol. 444, no. 7122, pp. 1027–1031, 2006.
59. R. E. Ley, P. J. Turnbaugh, S. Klein, and J. I. Gordon, “Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity,” Nature, vol. 444, no. 7122, pp. 1022–1023, 2006.
60. R. E. Ley, M. Hamady, C. Lozupone, et al., “Evolution of mammals and their gut microbes,” Science, vol. 320, no. 5883, pp. 1647–1651, 2008.
61. K. Kurokawa, T. Itoh, T. Kuwahara, et al., “Comparative metagenomics revealed commonly enriched gene sets in human gut microbiomes,” DNA Research, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 169–181, 2007.
62. G. W. Tannock, K. Munro, H. J. M. Harmsen, G. W. Welling, J. Smart, and P. K. Gopal, “Analysis of the fecal microflora of human subjects consuming a probiotic product containing Lactobacillus rhamnosus DR20,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 66, no. 6, pp. 2578–2588, 2000.
63. J. A. Patterson and K. M. Burkholder, “Application of prebiotics and probiotics in poultry production,” Poultry Science, vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 627–631, 2003.
64. K. S. Swanson and G. J. Fahey, “Prebiotic impacts on companion animals,” in Prebiotics: Development and Applications, G. R. Gibson and R. A. Rastall, Eds., pp. 213–236, John Wiley & sons, Chicester, UK, 2006.
65. K. C. Mountzouris, P. Tsirtsikos, E. Kalamara, S. Nitsch, G. Schatzmayr, and K. Fegeros, “Evaluation of the efficacy of a probiotic containing Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Enterococcus, and Pediococcus strains in promoting broiler performance and modulating cecal microflora composition and metabolic activities,” Poultry Science, vol. 86, no. 2, pp. 309–317, 2007.
66. W. Vahjen, D. Taras, and O. Simon, “Effect of the probiotic Enterococcus faecium NCIMB10415 on cell numbers of total Enterococcus spp., E. faecium and E. faecalis in the intestine of piglets,” Current Issues in Intestinal Microbiology, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1–8, 2007.
67. J. Walter, “The microecology of Lactobacilli in the gastrointestinal tract,” in Probiotics and Prebiotics: Scientific Aspects, G. W. Tannock, Ed., pp. 51–82, Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, UK, 2005.
68. G. E. Gardiner, P. G. Casey, G. Casey, et al., “Relative ability of orally administered Lactobacillus murinus to predominate and persist in the porcine gastrointestinal tract,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 1895–1906, 2004.
69. P. G. Casey, G. E. Gardiner, G. Casey, et al., “A five-strain probiotic combination reduces pathogen shedding and alleviates disease signs in pigs challenged with Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 73, no. 6, pp. 1858–1863, 2007.
70. S. Pavan, P. Desreumaux, and A. Mercenier, “Use of mouse models to evaluate the persistence, safety, and immune modulation capacities of lactic acid bacteria,” Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 696–701, 2003.
71. S. Fuentes, M. Egert, M. Jiménez-Valera, et al., “Administration of Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus plantarum affects the diversity of murine intestinal lactobacilli, but not the overall bacterial community structure,” Research in Microbiology, vol. 159, no. 4, pp. 237–243, 2008.
72. A. Kassinen, L. Krogius-Kurikka, H. Mäkivuokko, et al., “The fecal microbiota of irritable bowel syndrome patients differs significantly from that of healthy subjects,” Gastroenterology, vol. 133, no. 1, pp. 24–33, 2007.
73. R. M. Satokari, E. E. Vaughan, H. Smidt, M. Saarela, J. Mättö, and W. M. de Vos, “Molecular approaches for the detection and identification of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli in the human gastrointestinal tract,” Systematic and Applied Microbiology, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 572–584, 2003.
74. K. Kajander, L. Krogius-Kurikka, T. Rinttilä, H. Karjalainen, A. Palva, and R. Korpela, “Effects of multispecies probiotic supplementation on intestinal microbiota in irritable bowel syndrome,” Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 463–473, 2007.
75. K. Kajander, E. Myllyluoma, M. Rajilić-Stojanović, et al., “Clinical trial: multispecies probiotic supplementation alleviates the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome and stabilizes intestinal microbiota,” Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 48–57, 2008.
76. D. N. Frank, A. L. St. Amand, R. A. Feldman, E. C. Boedeker, N. Harpaz, and N. R. Pace, “Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of microbial community imbalances in human inflammatory bowel diseases,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 104, no. 34, pp. 13780–13785, 2007.
77. C. Manichanh, L. Rigottier-Gois, E. Bonnaud, et al., “Reduced diversity of faecal microbiota in Crohn's disease revealed by a metagenomic approach,” Gut, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 205–211, 2006.
78. P. D. Scanlan, F. Shanahan, and J. R. Marchesi, “Human methanogen diversity and incidence in healthy and diseased colonic groups using mcrA gene analysis,” BMC Microbiology, vol. 8, article 79, pp. 1–8, 2008.
79. S. J. Allen, B. Okoko, E. Martinez, G. Gregorio, and L. F. Dans, “Probiotics for treating infectious diarrhoea,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 2, Article ID CD003048, 2004.
80. D. A. M. Goossens, D. M. A. E. Jonkers, M. G. V. M. Russel, E. E. Stobberingh, and R. W. Stockbrügger, “The effect of a probiotic drink with Lactobacillus plantarum 299v on the bacterial composition in faeces and mucosal biopsies of rectum and ascending colon,” Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 255–263, 2006.
81. T. Vanhoutte, V. de Preter, E. de Brandt, K. Verbeke, J. Swings, and G. Huys, “Molecular monitoring of the fecal microbiota of healthy human subjects during administration of lactulose and Saccharomyces boulardii,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 72, no. 9, pp. 5990–5997, 2006.
82. J. L. Sonnenburg, C. T. Chen, and J. I. Gordon, “Genomic and metabolic studies of the impact of probiotics on a model gut symbiont and host,” PLoS Biology, vol. 4, no. 12, p. e413, 2006.
83. K. Hojo, S. Nagaoka, S. Murata, N. Taketomo, T. Ohshima, and N. Maeda, “Reduction of vitamin K concentration by salivary Bifidobacterium strains and their possible nutritional competition with Porphyromonas gingivalis,” Journal of Applied Microbiology, vol. 103, no. 5, pp. 1969–1974, 2007.
84. F.-P. J. Martin, Y. Wang, N. Sprenger, et al., “Probiotic modulation of symbiotic gut microbial-host metabolic interactions in a humanized microbiome mouse model,” Molecular Systems Biology, vol. 4, article 157, pp. 1–15, 2008.
85. M. Li, B. Wang, M. Zhang, et al., “Symbiotic gut microbes modulate human metabolic phenotypes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 105, no. 6, pp. 2117–2122, 2008.
86. F. Dal Bello, J. Walter, C. Hertel, and W. P. Hammes, “In vitro study of prebiotic properties of levan-type exopolysaccharides from Lactobacilli and non-digestible carbohydrates using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis,” Systematic and Applied Microbiology, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 232–237, 2001.
87. E. Barrett, M. Hayes, P. O'Connor, et al., “Salivaricin P, one of a family of two-component antilisterial bacteriocins produced by intestinal isolates of Lactobacillus salivarius,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 73, no. 11, pp. 3719–3723, 2007.
88. M. C. Kelly, M. J. Mequio, and V. Pybus, “Inhibition of vaginal lactobacilli by a bacteriocin-like inhibitor produced by Enterococcus faecium 62-6: potential significance for bacterial vaginosis,” Infectious Disease in Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 147–156, 2003.
89. M. C. Collado, E. Isolauri, and S. Salminen, “Specific probiotic strains and their combinations counteract adhesion of Enterobacter sakazakii to intestinal mucus,” FEMS Microbiology Letters, vol. 285, no. 1, pp. 58–64, 2008.
90. T. Matsumoto, H. Ishikawa, K. Tateda, T. Yaeshima, N. Ishibashi, and K. Yamaguchi, “Oral administration of Bifidobacterium longum prevents gut-derived Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis in mice,” Journal of Applied Microbiology, vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 672–680, 2008.
91. A. A. Zyrek, C. Cichon, S. Helms, C. Enders, U. Sonnenborn, and M. A. Schmidt, “Molecular mechanisms underlying the probiotic effects of Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 involve ZO-2 and PKC$\zeta$ redistribution resulting in tight junction and epithelial barrier repair,” Cellular Microbiology, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 804–816, 2007.
92. A. M. O'Hara, P. O'Regan, Á. Fanning, et al., “Functional modulation of human intestinal epithelial cell responses by Bifidobacterium infantis and Lactobacillus salivarius,” Immunology, vol. 118, no. 2, pp. 202–215, 2006.
93. J.-S. So, H.-K. Kwon, C.-G. Lee, et al., “Lactobacillus casei suppresses experimental arthritis by down-regulating T helper 1 effector functions,” Molecular Immunology, vol. 45, no. 9, pp. 2690–2699, 2008.
94. B. Sheil, J. McCarthy, L. O'Mahony, et al., “Is the mucosal route of administration essential for probiotic function? Subcutaneous administration is associated with attenuation of murine colitis and arthritis,” Gut, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 694–700, 2004.
95. V. V. Kravchenko, G. F. Kaufmann, J. C. Mathison, et al., “Modulation of gene expression via disruption of NF-κB signaling by a bacterial small molecule,” Science, vol. 321, no. 5886, pp. 259–263, 2008.
96. H. S. Gill, K. J. Rutherfurd, J. Prasad, and P. K. Gopal, “Enhancement of natural and acquired immunity by Lactobacillus rhamnosus (HN001), Lactobacillus acidophilus (HN017) and Bifidobacterium lactis (HN019),” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 167–176, 2000.
97. H. S. Gill, K. J. Rutherfurd, M. L. Cross, and P. K. Gopal, “Enhancement of immunity in the elderly by dietary supplementation with the probiotic Bifidobactedum lactis HN019,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 74, no. 6, pp. 833–839, 2001.
98. F. Guarner, R. Bourdet-Sicard, P. Brandtzaeg, et al., “Mechanisms of disease: the hygiene hypothesis revisited,” Nature Clinical Practice Gastroenterology and Hepatology, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 275–284, 2006.