Journal of Aging Research

Research Article

Cognitively Stimulating Activities: Effects on Cognition across Four Studies with up to 21 Years of Longitudinal Data

Table 5

Mixed effects model summaries across four studies with baseline cognitive activity and activity change predicting four cognitive outcomes.


	Octo-Twin			LBLS			SLS			VLS
Reasoning										Communication			Computation			Conundrums
		SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE

Intercept	11.17	0.64	<0.001	20.98	0.58	<0.001	14.83	0.18	<0.001	9.60	0.58	<0.001	9.06	0.56	<0.001	9.64	0.57	<0.001
Age	−0.32	0.10	0.002	−0.60	0.05	<0.001	−0.35	0.01	<0.001	−0.25	0.02	<0.001	−0.22	0.02	<0.001	−0.24	0.02	<0.001
Sex	0.10	0.59	0.862	2.58	0.82	0.002	1.40	0.24	<0.001	−0.12	0.31	0.700	0.42	0.31	0.170	−0.19	−0.19	0.300
Education	0.39	0.14	0.015	1.24	0.15	<0.001	0.48	0.05	<0.001	0.29	0.05	<0.001	0.25	0.05	<0.001	0.32	0.05	<0.001
Activity	1.46	0.18	<0.001	0.02	0.33	0.956	0.34	0.11	0.001	0.45	0.20	0.024	1.24	0.19	<0.001	0.94	0.19	<0.001
Age × activity	0.05	0.06	0.389	0.09	0.04	0.020	0.01	0.01	0.286	0.00	0.02	0.876	0.04	0.02	0.078	0.02	0.02	0.447
Education × activity	−0.05	0.06	0.453	0.04	0.10	0.702	−0.05	0.03	0.168	−0.12	0.05	0.020	0.00	0.05	0.923	0.05	0.05	0.404
Time	−0.45	0.09	<0.001	−0.50	0.08	<0.001	−0.25	0.02	<0.001	−0.24	0.03	<0.001	−0.25	0.03	<0.001	−0.25	0.03	<0.001
Age × time	−0.02	0.02	0.274	−0.03	0.01	0.000	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001
Sex × time	0.09	0.10	0.367	0.07	0.11	0.536	0.01	0.02	0.545	0.02	0.03	0.598	0.04	0.03	0.232	0.01	0.03	0.643
Education × time	0.03	0.02	0.224	−0.06	0.02	0.008	−0.01	0.00	0.092	−0.01	0.01	0.091	−0.01	0.00	0.061	−0.01	0.00	0.138
Activity × time	0.02	0.03	0.595	0.05	0.05	0.337	0.01	0.01	0.173	0.03	0.02	0.145	0.05	0.02	0.025	−0.01	0.02	0.692
Activity change	0.41	0.13	0.002	0.28	0.20	0.164	0.24	0.09	0.006	0.38	0.14	0.005	0.49	0.13	<0.001	0.23	0.12	0.059

	—			LBLS			SLS			VLS
Fluency										Communication			Computation			Conundrums
				b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE

Intercept				30.94	0.66	<0.001	36.46	0.46	<0.001	11.68	0.53	<0.001	11.28	0.55	<0.001	11.73	0.53	<0.001
Age				−0.31	0.05	<0.001	−0.34	0.04	<0.001	−0.08	0.02	0.001	−0.08	0.02	0.002	−0.07	0.02	0.006
Sex				3.42	0.93	<0.001	2.88	0.61	<0.001	0.63	0.34	0.065	1.02	0.36	0.005	0.54	0.34	0.115
Education				0.88	0.17	<0.001	1.17	0.11	<0.001	0.47	0.05	<0.001	0.58	0.05	<0.001	0.60	0.05	<0.001
Activity				1.14	0.37	0.002	1.03	0.27	0.001	1.80	0.22	<0.001	0.81	0.22	<0.001	1.68	0.21	<0.001
Age × activity				0.07	0.04	0.121	0.00	0.03	0.900	0.01	0.03	0.709	0.04	0.03	0.112	0.04	0.03	0.094
Education × activity				0.05	0.11	0.651	0.00	0.08	0.995	−0.12	0.06	0.042	−0.04	0.05	0.489	0.03	0.06	0.659
Time				−0.22	0.11	0.052	−0.42	0.04	<0.001	−0.11	0.03	<0.001	−0.13	0.03	<0.001	−0.13	0.03	<0.001
Age × time				−0.02	0.01	0.015	−0.02	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	0.001	−0.01	0.00	0.001	−0.01	0.00	0.001
Sex × time				−0.17	0.15	0.252	0.11	0.05	0.025	0.07	0.04	0.058	0.08	0.04	0.050	0.07	0.04	0.078
Education × time				0.01	0.03	0.778	−0.01	0.01	0.105	0.00	0.01	0.823	0.00	0.01	0.955	0.00	0.01	0.954
Activity × time				−0.06	0.07	0.350	0.02	0.02	0.324	0.00	0.03	0.868	0.02	0.03	0.448	0.01	0.03	0.793
Activity change				0.49	0.30	0.097	0.50	0.20	0.012	0.76	0.18	<0.001	0.68	0.18	<0.001	0.48	0.16	0.003

	Octo-Twin			LBLS			SLS			VLS
Memory										Communication			Computation			Conundrums
		SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE

Intercept	8.84	0.29	<0.001	10.73	0.21	<0.001	11.68	0.13	<0.001	17.37	0.41	<0.001	17.06	0.40	<0.001	17.51	0.41	<0.001
Age	−0.18	0.06	0.001	−0.20	0.02	<0.001	−0.18	0.01	<0.001	−0.19	0.02	<0.001	−0.17	0.02	<0.001	−0.18	0.02	<0.001
Sex	0.91	0.99	0.006	1.41	0.30	<0.001	1.40	0.18	<0.001	1.58	0.26	<0.001	2.13	0.27	<0.001	1.50	0.26	<0.001
Education	0.35	0.07	<0.001	0.25	0.05	<0.001	0.26	0.03	<0.001	0.23	0.04	<0.001	0.25	0.04	<0.001	0.30	0.04	<0.001
Activity	0.59	0.10	<0.001	0.17	0.12	0.142	0.41	0.08	<0.001	0.96	0.17	<0.001	1.17	0.16	<0.001	0.85	0.16	<0.001
Age × activity	−0.01	0.04	0.930	0.00	0.01	0.776	0.00	0.01	0.901	0.07	0.02	<0.001	0.06	0.02	0.002	0.06	0.02	0.002
Education × activity	−0.02	0.04	0.663	0.04	0.04	0.247	0.00	0.02	0.948	−0.07	0.04	0.127	−0.02	0.04	0.658	−0.04	0.05	0.345
Time	−0.27	0.07	<0.001	−0.17	0.05	0.001	−0.17	0.01	<0.001	−0.26	0.03	<0.001	−0.26	0.03	<0.001	−0.28	0.03	<0.001
Age × time	0.00	0.02	0.947	0.00	0.00	0.627	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001
Sex × time	0.06	0.08	0.465	−0.03	0.07	0.705	0.03	0.02	0.112	−0.01	0.03	0.783	−0.01	0.03	0.736	−0.01	0.03	0.660
Education × time	0.00	0.02	0.932	0.01	0.01	0.691	0.00	0.00	0.549	0.00	0.01	0.349	0.00	0.00	0.349	−0.01	0.00	0.246
Activity × time	0.03	0.02	0.231	0.04	0.03	0.216	0.00	0.01	0.827	0.01	0.02	0.708	0.00	0.02	0.923	0.03	0.02	0.164
Activity change	0.35	0.09	<0.001	0.25	0.12	0.039	0.25	0.07	0.001	0.71	0.13	<0.001	0.78	0.12	<0.001	0.18	0.12	0.126

Semantic knowledge	Octo-Twin			LBLS			SLS			VLS
										Communication			Computation			Conundrums
		SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE		b	SE

Intercept	31.60	0.69	<0.001	37.89	0.59	<0.001	24.54	0.23	<0.001	44.23	0.68	<0.001	43.66	0.68	<0.001	44.07	0.69	<0.001
Age	−0.40	0.14	0.004	−0.29	0.05	<0.001	0.01	0.02	0.501	0.09	0.03	0.004	0.11	0.03	<0.001	0.09	0.03	0.004
Sex	−5.17	0.85	<0.001	1.60	0.84	0.056	0.12	0.31	0.688	−0.07	0.44	0.865	0.68	0.46	0.137	−0.18	0.45	0.687
Education	1.60	0.20	<0.001	0.95	0.15	<0.001	0.99	0.06	<0.001	0.58	0.07	<0.001	0.65	0.07	<0.001	0.72	0.07	<0.001
Activity	2.21	0.25	<0.001	0.75	0.34	0.026	0.81	0.14	<0.001	1.97	0.28	<0.001	1.77	0.28	<0.001	1.37	0.27	<0.001
Age × activity	0.03	0.09	0.737	0.05	0.04	0.199	0.02	0.02	0.277	0.05	0.03	0.113	0.06	0.03	0.074	0.07	0.03	0.039
Education × activity	−0.23	0.10	0.014	−0.05	0.10	0.647	−0.05	0.04	0.206	−0.33	0.07	<0.001	−0.28	0.07	<0.001	−0.09	0.08	0.242
Time	−0.92	0.12	<0.001	−0.40	0.09	<0.001	−0.11	0.01	<0.001		0.03	<0.001	−0.14	0.03	<0.001	−0.16	0.03	<0.001
Age × time	−0.05	0.03	0.064	−0.03	0.01	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001	−0.01	0.00	<0.001
Sex × time	0.30	0.14	0.036	0.05	0.12	0.678	0.06	0.02	0.001	0.03	0.04	0.379	0.02	0.04	0.533	0.03	0.04	0.439
Education × time	0.04	0.03	0.155	−0.03	0.02	0.185	0.00	0.00	0.447	0.00	0.01	0.510	0.00	0.01	0.725	0.00	0.01	0.453
Activity × time	−0.02	0.04	0.571	0.03	0.05	0.627	0.01	0.01	0.069	0.02	0.02	0.442	−0.01	0.02	0.773	0.01	0.02	0.524
Activity change	0.47	0.17	0.005	0.44	0.20	0.027	0.26	0.07	<0.001	0.49	0.15	0.001	0.53	0.14	<0.001	0.49	0.13	<0.001

Values represent model coefficients and their standard error. Across all studies, time was measured in years since baseline visit, and activity change was entered as a time-varying covariate. All other variables represent baseline measurements alone, in interaction with one another or in interaction with time.