Copyright © 2011 David Omoareghan Irabor. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

1. P. Murphy, G. Petersen, S. Thibodeau, and R. Fishel, “Genetic testing for colon cancer: joint statement of the American College of Medical Genetics and American Society of Human Genetics,” Genetics in Medicine, vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 362–366, 2000. View at Scopus
2. J. Higginson, “Gastrointestinal cancer in Africa, South of the Sahara,” Acta-Unio Internationalis Contra Cancrum, vol. 17, pp. 333–338, 1961.
3. J. H. Weisburger, “Colon carcinogens: their metabolism and mode of action,” Cancer, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 60–70, 1971. View at Scopus
4. M. J. Hill, “Cancer of the large bowel: human carcinogenesis,” British Journal of Surgery, vol. 72, pp. S37–S39, 1985. View at Scopus
5. I. Segal, C. A. Edwards, and A. R. P. Walker, “Continuing low colon cancer incidence in African populations,” American Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 95, no. 4, pp. 859–860, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
6. O. O. Adekunle and J. A. Lawani, “Clinical aspects and management of carcinoma of the rectum in Nigerians,” East African Medical Journal, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 206–213, 1982. View at Scopus
7. O. B. Alese and D. O. Irabor, “Adenomatous polyposis coli in an elderly female Nigerian,” Ghana Medical Journal, vol. 43, pp. 139–141, 2009.
8. D. P. Burkitt, “Epidemiology of cancer of the colon and rectum,” Cancer, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 3–13, 1971. View at Scopus
9. Nigeria Demographics Profile, 2011, http://www.indexmundi.com/nigeria/demographics_profile.html.
10. M. N. Okobia, “Cancer care in sub-Saharan Africa- urgent need for population-based cancer registries,” The Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, vol. 17, pp. 89–98, 2003.
11. O. O. Adekunle and A. A. Abioye, “Adenocarcinoma of the large bowel in Nigerians: a clinicopathologic study,” Diseases of the Colon and Rectum, vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 559–563, 1980. View at Scopus
12. Y. Iliyasu, J. K. Ladipo, E. E. U. Akang, C. A. Adebamowo, O. G. Ajao, and P. U. Aghadiuno, “A twenty-year review of malignant colorectal neoplasms at University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria,” Diseases of the Colon and Rectum, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 536–540, 1996. View at Scopus
13. O. O. Akute, “Colorectal carcinoma in Ibadan, Nigeria: a 20-year survey—1971 to 1990,” Hepato-Gastroenterology, vol. 47, no. 33, pp. 709–713, 2000. View at Scopus
14. D. C. Nwafo and J. O. Ojukwu, “Malignant disease of the colon, rectum, and anus in Nigerian Igbos,” Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 133–135, 1980. View at Scopus
15. A. Z. Sule, B. M. Mandong, and D. Iya, “Malignant colorectal tumours: a ten year review in Jos, Nigeria,” West African Journal of Medicine, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 251–255, 2001. View at Scopus
16. S. T. Edino, A. Z. Mohammed, and O. Ochicha, “Characteristics of colorectal carcinoma in Kano, Nigeria: an analysis of 50 cases,” Nigerian Journal of Medicine, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 161–166, 2005. View at Scopus
17. D. O. Akinola and A. O. Arigbabu, “Pattern and presentation of large bowel neoplasms in Nigerians,” Central African Journal of Medicine, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 98–102, 1994. View at Scopus
18. A. A. Adesanya and J. T. da Rocha-Afodu, “Colorectal cancer in Lagos: a critical review of 100 cases,” The Nigerian Postgraduate Medical Journal, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 129–136, 2000. View at Scopus
19. C. G. Luke, B. Koczwara, J. E. Moore et al., “Treatment and survival from colorectal cancer: the experience of patients at South Australian teaching hospitals between 1980 and 2002,” Clinical Oncology, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 372–381, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
20. J. Sack and J. M. Rothman, “Colorectal carcinoma: natural history and management,” Hospital Physician, vol. 36, pp. 64–73, 2000.
21. D. O. Irabor, A. Arowolo, and A. A. Afolabi, “Colon and rectal cancer in Ibadan, Nigeria: an update,” Colorectal Disease, vol. 12, pp. e43–e49, 2010.
22. I. Segal, “Rarity of colorectal adenomas in the African black population,” European Journal of Cancer Prevention, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 387–391, 1998. View at Scopus
23. O. O. Adekunle and G. O. Ajao, “Colorectal cancer in adolescent Nigerians,” Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, Supplement, vol. 21, no. 124, pp. 183–186, 1986. View at Scopus
24. S. U. Udofot, M. D. Ekpo, and M. I. Khalil, “Familial polyposis coli: an unusual case in West Africa,” Central African Journal of Medicine, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 44–48, 1992. View at Scopus
25. B. J. Olasode and O. A. Olasode, “Missed diagnosis—adenomatous polyposis coli,” The Central African Journal of Medicine, vol. 43, no. 11, article 339, 1997. View at Scopus
26. C. A. Adebamowo, O. Adeyi, R. Pyatt, T. W. Prior, R. B. Chadwick, and A. de la Chapelle, “Case report on hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) in Nigeria,” African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 71–73, 2000. View at Scopus
27. D. Irabor and O. A. Adedeji, “Colorectal cancer in Nigeria: 40 years on. A review,” European Journal of Cancer Care, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 110–115, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
28. K. Jaskiewicz, E. Lancaster, L. Banach, and A. Karmolinski, “Proliferative activity of normal and neoplastic colonic mucosa in population groups with high and low risk for colorectal carcinoma,” Anticancer Research, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 4641–4644, 1998. View at Scopus
29. H. Boytchev, S. Marcovic, and G. J. Oettle, “The characteristics of large bowel cancer in the low-risk black population of the Witwatersrand,” Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 366–370, 1999. View at Scopus
30. O. G. Ajao, M. O. Adenuga, and J. K. Ladipo, “Colorectal carcinoma in patients under the age of 30 years: a review of 11 cases,” Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 277–279, 1988. View at Scopus
31. Bowel (Colorectal) cancer. UK-incidence statistics. Cancer Research UK, 2011.
32. C. Barbatis, The histopathology of colorectal cancer. Archives of Hellenic Pathology, 1995, http://www.mednet.gr/hsap/ap09301e.htm.
33. W. C. Willett, M. J. Stampfer, G. A. Colditz, B. A. Rosner, and F. E. Speizer, “Relation of meat, fat, and fiber intake to the risk of colon cancer in a prospective study among women,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 323, no. 24, pp. 1664–1672, 1990. View at Scopus
34. E. Kampman, M. L. Slattery, J. Bigler et al., “Meat consumption, genetic susceptibility, and colon cancer risk: a United States multicenter case-control study,” Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 15–24, 1999. View at Scopus
35. P. Boyle and J. S. Langman, “ABC of colorectal cancer epidemiology,” British Medical Journal, vol. 321, no. 7264, pp. 805–808, 2000. View at Scopus
36. M. Ponz de Leon, “Prevention and chemoprevention of colorectal neoplasms,” Digestive and Liver Disease, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 59–69, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
37. A. Schatzkin, E. Lanza, D. Corle et al., “Lack of effect of a low-fat, high-fiber diet on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 342, no. 16, pp. 1149–1155, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
38. D. S. Alberts, M. E. Martínez, D. J. Roe et al., “Lack of effect of a high-fiber cereal supplement on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 342, no. 16, pp. 1156–1162, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
39. G. N. Wogan, S. S. Hecht, J. S. Felton, A. H. Conney, and L. A. Loeb, “Environmental and chemical carcinogenesis,” Seminars in Cancer Biology, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 473–486, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
40. A. H. Wu, D. Shibata, M. C. Yu, M. Y. Lai, and R. K. Ross, “Dietary heterocyclic amines and microsatellite instability in colon adenocarcinomas,” Carcinogenesis, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 1681–1684, 2001. View at Scopus
41. L. M. Butler, R. Sinha, R. C. Millikan et al., “Heterocyclic amines, meat intake, and association with colon cancer in a population-based study,” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 157, no. 5, pp. 434–445, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
42. G. O. Emerole, “Carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in some Nigerian foods,” Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 641–646, 1980. View at Scopus
43. E. Olatunde Farombi, “Diet-related cancer and prevention using anticarcinogens,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 3, no. 12, pp. 651–661, 2004. View at Scopus
44. D. L. Topping and P. M. Clifton, “Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides,” Physiological Reviews, vol. 81, no. 3, pp. 1031–1064, 2001. View at Scopus
45. L. J. M. Martin, H. J. W. Dumon, G. Lecannu, and M. M. J. Champ, “Potato and high-amylose maize starches are not equivalent producers of butyrate for the colonic mucosa,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 84, no. 5, pp. 689–696, 2000. View at Scopus
46. G. P. Young and R. K. Le Leu, “Resistant starch and colorectal neoplasia,” Journal of AOAC International, vol. 87, no. 3, pp. 775–786, 2004. View at Scopus
47. S. Toden, A. R. Bird, D. L. Topping, and M. A. Conlon, “Resistant starch prevents colonic DNA damage induced by high dietary cooked red meat or casein in rats,” Cancer Biology and Therapy, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 267–272, 2006. View at Scopus
48. R. Ahmed, I. Segal, and H. Hassan, “Fermentation of dietary starch in humans,” American Journal of Gastroenterology, vol. 95, no. 4, pp. 1017–1020, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
49. P. Marandola, K. Bova, M. A. Labib, et al., “Cancer and nutrition in Africa in the postgenomic and proteomics era,” African Journal of Urology, vol. 10, pp. 178–197, 2004.
50. P. Boyle, D. G. Zaridze, and M. Smans, “Descriptive epidemiology of colorectal cancer,” International Journal of Cancer, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 9–18, 1985. View at Scopus
51. E. Giovannucci and W. C. Willett, “Dietary factors and risk of colon cancer,” Annals of Medicine, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 443–452, 1994. View at Scopus
52. M. Moshkowitz and N. Arber, “Differences in incidence and distribution of colorectal cancer among races and ethnic societies: lifestyle, genes or both?” Digestion, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 219–222, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
53. R. Sinha, D. E. Anderson, S. S. McDonald, and P. Greenwald, “Cancer risk and diet in India,” Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 222–228, 2003. View at Scopus
54. S. Narayan, “Curcumin, a multi-functional chemopreventive agent, blocks growth of colon cancer cells by targeting β-catenin-mediated transactivation and cell-cell adhesion pathways,” Journal of Molecular Histology, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 301–307, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
55. N. Nalini, K. Sabitha, P. Viswanathan, and V. P. Menon, “Influence of spices on the bacterial (enzyme) activity in experimental colon cancer,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 15–24, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
56. D. P. Chauhan, “Chemotherapeutic potential of curcumin for colorectal cancer,” Current Pharmaceutical Design, vol. 8, no. 19, pp. 1695–1706, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
57. P. Greenwald, “Science, medicine, and the future: cancer chemoprevention,” British Medical Journal, vol. 324, no. 7339, pp. 714–718, 2002. View at Scopus
58. C. Galeone, C. Pelucchi, F. Levi et al., “Onion and garlic use and human cancer,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 84, no. 5, pp. 1027–1032, 2006. View at Scopus
59. T. Narisawa, Y. Fukaura, M. Hasebe, S. Nomura, S. Oshima, and T. Inakuma, “Prevention of N-methylnitrosourea-induced colon carcinogenesis in rats by oxygenated carotenoid capsanthin and capsanthin-rich paprika juice,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, vol. 224, no. 2, pp. 116–122, 2000. View at Scopus
60. C. S. Kim, W. H. Park, J. Y. Park et al., “Capsaicin, a spicy component of hot pepper, induces apoptosis by activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ in HT-29 human colon cancer cells,” Journal of Medicinal Food, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 267–273, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
61. T. Stürmer, J. E. Buring, I. M. Lee, J. M. Gaziano, and R. J. Glynn, “Metabolic abnormalities and risk for colorectal cancer in the physicians' health study,” Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, vol. 15, no. 12, pp. 2391–2397, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
62. M. C. Boutron-Ruault, P. Senesse, S. Méance, C. Belghiti, and J. Faivre, “Energy intake, body mass index, physical activity, and the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence,” Nutrition and Cancer, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 50–57, 2001. View at Scopus
63. R. A. Durazo-Arvizu, A. Luke, R. S. Cooper et al., “Rapid increases in obesity in Jamaica, compared to Nigeria and the United States,” BMC Public Health, vol. 8, article 133, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
64. T. Pischon, P. H. Lahmann, H. Boeing et al., “Body size and risk of colon and rectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC),” Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 98, no. 13, pp. 920–931, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
65. E. Giovanucci, “Obesity, insulin and colon cancer,” American Association for Cancer Research, vol. 45, article 1319, 2004.
66. I. Segal, “Physiological small bowel malabsorption of carbohydrates protects against large bowel diseases in africans,” Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 249–252, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
67. A. Perino, S. Cabras, D. Obinu, and L. C. Sforza, “Lactose intolerance: a non-allergic disorder often managed by allergologists,” European Annals of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 3–16, 2009. View at Scopus
68. I. Segal, H. Hassan, A. R. P. Walker, P. Becker, and J. Braganza, “Fecal short chain fatty acids in South African urban Africans and whites,” Diseases of the Colon and Rectum, vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 732–734, 1995. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
69. N. Kretchmer, O. Ransome-Kuti, R. Hurwitz, C. Dungy, and W. Alakija, “Intestinal absorption of lactose in Nigerian ethnic groups,” The Lancet, vol. 2, no. 7721, pp. 392–395, 1971. View at Scopus
70. I. Segal, P. P. Gagjee, A. R. Essop, and A. M. Noormohamed, “Lactase deficiency in the South African Black population,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 901–905, 1983. View at Scopus
71. C. F. Garland and F. C. Garland, “Do sunlight and vitamin D reduce the likelihood of colon cancer?” International Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 217–220, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
72. R. P. Heaney, “Research and public health implications of the intricate relationship between calcium and vitamin D in the prevention of colorectal neoplasia,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 96, no. 10, pp. 805–807, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
73. World Sunshine Map, 2011, http://earth.rice.edu/mtpe/geo/geosphere/hot/energyfuture/Sunlight.html.
74. D. M. Parkin, F. Bray, J. Ferlay, and P. Pisani, “Global cancer statistics, 2002,” Ca-A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 74–108, 2005. View at Scopus