|
Variable | Mechanism | Reference |
|
Body iron status | Modulates transcription, membrane expression/affinity of insulin receptor expression in hepatocytes, influences insulin-dependent gene expression | [191] |
|
Dietary iron | Controls circadian hepatic glucose metabolism through heme synthesis | [192] |
|
Intake of processed meat, red meat | Higher risk of type 2 diabetes | [161, 193, 194] |
|
Dietary iron restriction, iron chelation | Increased insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function (ob/ob lep−/− mice) | [195] |
|
Iron chelation | Ameliorates adipocyte hypertrophy via suppression of oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines, and macrophage infiltration | [196] |
|
Starvation | Increased liver Pck1 transcription, hepcidin expression, and degradation of ferroportin; hypoferremia, hepatic iron retention (C57BL/6Crl, 129S2/SvPas, BALB/c, and Creb3l3−/− null mice) | [197] |
|
High fat diet | Increased hepatic iron regulatory protein-1, increased transferrin receptor 1 expression, increased hepcidin, decreased ferroportin (Hfe−/− mice); increased fatty acid oxidation, hypermetabolism, elevated hepatic glucose production (Hfe−/− mice) | [198, 199] |
|
Cellular iron uptake | Stimulated by insulin | [200] |
|
Excess hepatic iron | Hyperinsulinemia due to decreased insulin extraction, impaired insulin secretion | [121] |
|
Iron-related proteins in adipose tissue | Expression modulated by insulin resistance | [201] |
|
Adipocyte iron | Regulates leptin and food intake | [202] |
|
Adiponectin | Transcription negatively regulated by iron | [203, 204] |
|
Visfatin | Positive association with serum prohepcidin, negative correlation with serum soluble transferrin receptor in men with altered glucose tolerance | [205] |
|
Heme oxygenase-1 promoter microsatellite polymorphism | Higher ferritin with short (GT)() repeats | [206] |
|
Antioxidants | Lower levels partially explained by iron alterations | [207] |
|