The Utility of Rural and Underserved Designations in Geospatial Assessments of Distance Traveled to Healthcare Services: Implications for Public Health Research and Practice

Table 3

Factors associated with rurality designation (𝑛 = 1790).

	UIC				MUA				HPSA				Frontier
			95% CI				95% CI				95% CI				95% CI
	OR	𝑃	Lower	Upper	OR	𝑃	Lower	Upper	OR	𝑃	Lower	Upper	OR	𝑃	Lower	Upper
Age: 18–40 years	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Age: 41–64 years	1.23	0.284	0.84	1.79	1.23	0.353	0.80	1.90	0.66	0.046	0.44	0.99	0.67	0.119	0.41	1.11
Age: 65+ years	1.35	0.009	1.08	1.68	1.69	<0.001	1.30	2.22	0.84	0.144	0.66	1.06	0.81	0.140	0.62	1.07
Male	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Female	1.18	0.143	0.95	1.47	1.12	0.405	0.86	1.45	0.88	0.294	0.70	1.12	0.94	0.665	0.72	1.23
Education: less than high School	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Education: high school graduate	1.28	0.353	0.76	2.15	1.44	0.228	0.80	2.60	1.04	0.889	0.59	1.83	1.33	0.406	0.68	2.60
Education: more than high School	1.16	0.156	0.94	1.43	1.45	0.005	1.12	1.88	1.55	<0.001	1.24	1.93	1.66	<0.001	1.29	2.13
Non-Hispanic white	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
African American	2.64	<0.001	1.77	3.95	3.71	<0.001	2.38	5.77	1.60	0.030	1.05	2.45	2.19	0.008	1.23	3.91
Hispanic	1.43	0.162	0.87	2.37	2.14	0.006	1.24	3.70	1.39	0.229	0.81	2.38	2.49	0.010	1.25	4.97
BMI: normal weight	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
BMI: overweight	1.00	0.998	0.77	1.30	1.18	0.302	0.86	1.61	1.39	0.019	1.06	1.84	1.24	0.188	0.90	1.72
BMI: obese	1.09	0.499	0.85	1.39	1.17	0.283	0.88	1.57	1.33	0.031	1.03	1.73	1.58	0.003	1.17	2.13
Number of chronic conditions	1.04	0.412	0.94	1.15	1.04	0.557	0.92	1.17	1.03	0.529	0.93	1.15	1.08	0.225	0.96	1.21
Health services travel: Cluster 1	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Health services travel: Cluster 2	0.48	<0.001	0.36	0.63	0.03	<0.001	0.01	0.05	0.17	<0.001	0.13	0.23	0.16	<0.001	0.11	0.22
Health services travel: Cluster 3	0.70	0.012	0.53	0.93	0.08	<0.001	0.04	0.17	0.39	<0.001	0.30	0.52	0.36	<0.001	0.27	0.48
Health services travel: Cluster 4	0.28	<0.001	0.19	0.41	0.02	<0.001	0.01	0.03	0.10	<0.001	0.07	0.16	0.06	<0.001	0.03	0.11
Health services travel: Cluster 5	0.21	<0.001	0.15	0.28	0.01	<0.001	0.01	0.02	0.07	<0.001	0.05	0.11	0.07	<0.001	0.04	0.11
	*Referent group: metro designation				*Referent group: non-underserved area				*Referent group: nonshortage area				*Referent group: nonfrontier designation
	Nagelkerke 𝑅^2 = 0.137				Nagelkerke 𝑅^2 = 0.392				Nagelkerke 𝑅^2 = 0.252				Nagelkerke 𝑅^2 = 0.248

UIC: Urban Influence Codes.
MUA: Medically Underserved Area.
HPSA: Health Professional Shortage Area.