The Shared Pathoetiological Effects of Particulate Air Pollution and the Social Environment on Fetal-Placental Development

Figure 4

Proposed pathways of how the social environment interacts to produce excess systemic and placental oxidative stress and inflammation leading to adverse pregnancy outcomes. The pregnant woman is nested within and influenced by neighbourhood/community-level factors which can exasperate or buffer the individual-level biological and behavioural factors [24, 26, 54, 128, 216, 217].