Review Article
Challenges in Immunotherapy Presented by the Glioblastoma Multiforme Microenvironment
Table 1
Selected clinical trials using cytokine modulation.
| | Reference | Patients | Cytokine | Immunologic response | Clinical response |
| | [58] |
(GBM: 103, AA: 42) | TGF-β | — | Median survival: 39.1 mo (10 uM dose) and 35.2 mo (80 uM dose) | | [63] |
Recurrent GBM | IL–2 | — | Enhancement of tumor on MRI unchanged (6/9) | | [64] |
(GBM: 7, AA: 2) | IL–2 | — | PR: 1 | | [65] |
recurrent GBM | IL–2 | Increased inflammatory infiltrate in biopsied tumors | PR: 2, SD: 4, Minor response: 4, Overall survival 58% (6 mo) and 25% (1 yr) | | [69] |
(GBM: 26, AA: 5) | IFN-γ
() | — | PR: 3 (Treatment group), No difference in median survival between treatment and control groups | | [70] |
(GBM: 14, AA: 14, Other: 12) | IFN-γ | — | No difference in median overall survival | | [71] |
(AA: 12, Other: 17) | IFN-β | — | PR: 2, SD: 2 | | [72] |
(GBM/AA: 15) | IFN-β | IFN-β treatment showed no growth suppression in ex vivo assays | SD: 3 | | [73] |
(GBM: 6, Recurrent AA: 1) | IFN-β | — | No response | | [75] |
recurrent HGG | IFN-α | — | Median survival: 13.3 mo | | [76] |
HGG | IFN-α | — | No difference in survival | | [77] |
(GBM: 6, AA: 2, Other 1) | IFN-α | — | CR: 2 | | [80] |
(GBM: 11, AA: 1) | IL–4 | Positive Elispot assay | No difference in progression free survival | | [142] |
recurrent GBM | IL–4 | — | Survival > 18 mo () | | [84] |
(GBM: 6, AA: 7, Other: 2) | IL–12 | — | PR: 4, Mixed response: 1 |
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