Neonatal Immune Adaptation of the Gut and Its Role during Infections

Tourneur, Emilie; Chassin, Cecilia

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/270301

Journal of Immunology Research

On this page

Abstract Introduction Conclusion Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

Host Defense against Common Early Life-Threatening Infections

View this Special Issue

Review Article | Open Access

Volume 2013 | Article ID 270301 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/270301

Neonatal Immune Adaptation of the Gut and Its Role during Infections

Emilie Tourneur¹and Cecilia Chassin¹

Academic Editor: Philipp Henneke

Received11 Feb 2013

Accepted03 Apr 2013

Published02 May 2013

Abstract

The intestinal tract is engaged in a relationship with a dense and complex microbial ecosystem, the microbiota. The establishment of this symbiosis is essential for host physiology, metabolism, and immune homeostasis. Because newborns are essentially sterile, the first exposure to microorganisms and environmental endotoxins during the neonatal period is followed by a crucial sequence of active events leading to immune tolerance and homeostasis. Contact with potent immunostimulatory molecules starts immediately at birth, and the discrimination between commensal bacteria and invading pathogens is essential to avoid an inappropriate immune stimulation and/or host infection. The dysregulation of these tight interactions between host and microbiota can be responsible for important health disorders, including inflammation and sepsis. This review summarizes the molecular events leading to the establishment of postnatal immune tolerance and how pathogens can avoid host immunity and induce neonatal infections and sepsis.

1. Introduction

Harboring trillions of microbes, the intestinal mucosa represents a complex ecosystem playing a dual role in host defense. Permanently exposed to enteric microbes, the mucosa has to provide an efficient protection against pathogenic microbes, and, on the other side, has to maintain tolerance towards commensal flora. The innate immune system has evolved to provide mutual profit to both the host and microbiota. Commensal bacteria, expressing unique enzymes, contribute to the digestion of dietary substances as well as the synthesis of food supplements [1]. They also confer protection against pathogenic bacteria though competition for space and nutriments [2, 3]. Commensal flora induces innate immune signaling which favors the differentiation and maturation of the immune system, the maintenance of the barrier integrity, and restricts commensal flora to the lumen [4–8]. On the other hand, the innate immune system has to be controlled and the intestinal mucosa develops mechanisms of tolerance that enable microflora to thrive and mechanisms of defense to provide an efficient response in case of invasion by pathogens. This subtle balance of the innate immune signaling is tightly controlled, and disturbance of this host-commensal relationship may cause inappropriate response of the innate immune system leading to inflammation, organ dysfunction, infections, sepsis, or cancer [9–11].

The intestinal surface is covered by a monolayer of polarized epithelial cells which, from birth to death, represents the only border separating the microbes of the intestinal lumen from the host. The challenge is particularly complex since the essential function of gut is to exchange nutriments with the content of the lumen, representing the major part of body nutrition. Conversely, the direct contact between the intestinal bacteria and the epithelial cell surface has to be minimized and controlled to avoid an inappropriate activation of the immune system. During ontogeny, the formation of the primitive gut starts early and is initiated from cells of the endoderm [12–14]. In mice at E6, definitive endodermal cells are specified during gastrulation. At E8.5, the endodermal tube is initiated by the fold of the endodermal lining at the anterior and posterior ends, creating anterior and caudal intestinal portals. After gut tube formation at E9–9.5, the simple epithelium turns into a pseudostratified epithelium. Specific intestinal markers, such as villin, first appear in the hindgut at E9 [15]. Between E9.5–14.5, while the gut length and circumference increase, the primitive gut tube is patterned along the anterior-posterior axis. A transitional period in the course of which the epithelium turn stratified was thought to occur, but a recent study shows that this event may not take place [16]. Around E14.5–15, gut epithelium begins a remodeling process with the emergence of finger-like protrusions called villi on the previously flat luminal surface, providing efficient nutrient absorption. Of note, unlike the small intestine, villi are lost during fetal development of the colon mucosa. Cell proliferation, firstly homogenous along the epithelium, becomes limited to the intervillus regions where gland-like invaginations (named crypts) secondarily start to form, creating a protected stem cell niche. These groups of stem cells migrate in a crypt-villus axis and are behind the different cell phenotypes of the intestinal epithelium. The level of maturity of neonatal gut at birth differs between species and depends on the length of the gestation period (Figure 1). Whereas human and guinea pig small intestine presents mature crypt-villus architecture at birth, crypts emerge 12–15 days after birth in mice during the weaning period [17]. In humans, the fetal gut is structurally mature from week 19 of gestation, and all the cellular components of the gastrointestinal immune system are already present during the fetal life. For example, T cells are identified around 12 weeks of gestation [18]. Nevertheless, the gastrointestinal immune system remains immature at birth, since antigenic stimulation of the colonizing microflora is required for its full maturation.

Figure 1

Time line of intestinal development in human and mice. Definitive endodermal cells are specified during gastrulation (mouse: embryonic day 6 E6, human: week 3 W3) and initiate the formation of the primitive gut tube, fully formed at E9.5 in mice and W4 in humans. At later stages, the tube is patterned along the anterior-posterior axis. Cytodifferentiation and villus formation take place from E14.5 in mouse and from W9 in human. In mice, crypt formation starts around day 15 after birth (postnatal day 15, P15), whereas in humans, mature crypt-villus architecture is already defined during fetal period from W11.

Cytodifferentiation goes along the villus/crypt axis formation. The immature primitive stem cells localized in the crypts lead to the formation of distinct lineages of intestinal epithelial cells based on their functions: enterocytes, goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, and Paneth cells [19]. Notch-mediated signaling pathway triggers epithelial cell differentiation and is essential for gut homeostasis [20]. Enterocytes are absorptive cells which represent 90% of intestinal epithelial cells. The apical surface is lined by a microvilli-covered brush border where essential enzymes and transporters for nutrition are expressed. Secretory cells are divided in three types: goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, and Paneth cells. Goblet cells are the most abundant secretory lineage in the gut epithelia and are involved in the production of highly glycosylated mucins generating a mucus matrix acting as a protective barrier by covering the gut mucosa [21]. It has been suggested that they could participate in the delivery of luminal antigens to subepithelial antigen-presenting cells [22]. They are located throughout the epithelial surface and their number increases from the proximal small intestine to the colon. Enteroendocrine cells are divided in more than 16 subtypes identified in mouse intestine depending on hormones or other signal mediators secreted. Their role as immune sensors is still unclear, even though it has been shown that they express a variety of innate immune receptors and respond to microbial stimulation [23]. Paneth cells, located at the bottom of the crypt of the small intestine, produce and secrete antimicrobial peptides and soluble mediators in the lumen, creating a niche for stem cells and reinforcing the mucus layer. Of note, they are lacking in the colon, as well as in the intestine of some species such as Xenodon merremii [24]. Stem cells allow a constant renewal of gut epithelium which must be maintained throughout the course of life. Transit-amplifying cells, after about two days in the crypt, divide 4-5 times before being terminally differentiated into one of the specialized intestinal epithelial cell types. In adult mice, around three days after the end of their differentiation, the cells reach the top of the villus, enter in apoptosis, and are exfoliated to the gut lumen [25]. The different cell types of the epithelium appear at different times during gut formation. In mice, Paneth cells appear after birth during the emergence of crypts in the small intestine whereas enteroendocrine cells are already present around E10. After birth, cell proliferation is low in the intestine of neonate mice until weaning in correlation with suckling diet and increases around 10–12 days after adaptation of the gut epithelium to solid nutrient components [26, 27]. Importantly, transcriptional repressor B lymphocyte-induced maturation protein 1 (Blimp1) is highly expressed in the developing and postnatal intestinal epithelium until the suckling to weaning transition. It has been shown that this factor is accountable for the developmental switch responsible for postnatal intestinal maturation and governs the suckling to weaning transition of the epithelium [28, 29]. The generation of new mouse models, such as the multicolor Cre-reporter R26R-Confetti mice, will probably bring new insights in the development and maturation of the intestine [30].

This review focuses on the major mechanisms and factors that are crucial for the establishment of the immune intestinal tolerance in the first weeks after birth, as well as the maintenance of a life-time homeostasis. Finally, the postnatal dysregulations of these processes possibly leading to infant inflammatory diseases such as neonatal infections and sepsis will be addressed.

2. Postnatal Colonization of the Gut

In normal conditions, fetal gastrointestinal tract is thought to be sterile. However, studies have suggested that fetal gut can be exposed to microorganisms invading the amniotic fluid, which can be associated with preterm delivery [31, 32]. It is also well known that prenatal exposure of the mother to bacterial components can influence intestinal epithelial development and function in newborn, as well as sensitivity to inflammatory diseases such as necrotizing enterocolitis [33–35]. Thus, prenatal exposure of the gut to bacteria may modulate immediate postnatal adaptations inducing tolerance toward colonizing bacteria. During birth, the intestinal mucosa undergoes a dramatic transition from a protected site to a densely colonized environment [36, 37]. Delivery allows the first contact between gut epithelium and microorganisms. Newborns are mainly exposed to microorganisms from the maternal mucosa and endotoxins of the environment. In mice and humans, after birth, facultative anaerobic or microaerophilic bacteria such as Lactobacilli and Streptococci are dominant. Few days later, Enterococci and Enterobacteriaceae appear and generate a decrease of local oxygen concentration by their metabolic activities, favoring the colonization by Bifidobacteria, Bacteroides spp. and Clostridium spp. [38–40]. Less is known about the longitudinal pattern of colonization after birth and the differences along the length of the gastrointestinal tract. Interestingly, transcriptome analyses show significant spatial differences in the response to colonizing microflora in the jejunum and colon compared to the ileal segment [41].

The colonization of the gut is influenced by several factors. The first microbial exposure of the newborn, as well as the delivery mode (i.e., vaginal delivery versus caesarian-section) has been shown to influence the postnatal gut microbiota composition [42]. Associations between some specific constituents of microbiota in human newborn day 4 after birth and the concentration of specific microbial groups at day 120 have been demonstrated, suggesting that early gut microbiota may influence later microbiota [43]. Colonization of the gut of caesarian-section-born infants appears to be delayed compared to vaginal delivery born infants. Moreover, caesarian-section born human babies have a different colonization pattern compared to vaginal delivery born ones [44]. However, vaginal microbes of the mother seem to not settle in neonate gut and change rapidly with suckling [45]. Although neonatal rodents are exposed to greater numbers of environmental microbes than humans, similar findings have been shown in culture-based studies demonstrating that the initial flora of the neonates is mainly composed of the vaginal and fecal microorganisms of maternal origin [46]. Diet (i.e., breast milk versus formula) is also a factor influencing the composition of the microflora. Bifidobacteria is dominant in the microflora of breast milk fed neonates, whereas formula-fed infants microflora harbor a majority of Bifidobacteria, Bacteroides spp., and Clostridium spp. [47]. Under the influence of the diet (i.e., milk to solid food) and especially after weaning, the composition of the microbiota changes rapidly. Gut microflora has fully matured in children around the age of 4 and after 3 to 5 weeks in mice [37, 48] and remains relatively stable throughout life [49, 50]. Other factors, such as hygiene, environment, and lifestyle, also influence the initial composition of the microflora, but at a lower extend once the microflora is stabilized. Indeed, the microflora of marital partners does not have a significantly greater similarity in their composition than unrelated individuals, even if these partners live in the same environment and have similar dietary habits [51]. Besides, the microbiota of monozygotic twins living separately is notably more similar than the microbiota of unrelated individuals [52].

The mature microbiota contains a complex and dynamic population of more than 1000 different microbial species in the human gastrointestinal tract, reaching 10¹² cfu/g of gut contents in the large bowel [53]. The collective genome of the whole microbes, the microbiome, may contain more than 100 times the number of genes of the mammalian genome [54]. Gut microbiota is increasingly considered as a “metabolic organ” inside the gut intestinal tract, which acts in physiology to develop functions that humans have not evolved for their own. The impact of the microbiota on gut physiology, metabolism, and health has been shown to be largely influenced by microbial activities, like fermentation of food components not digested by the upper gastrointestinal tract such as nondigestive carbonate [55]. Interaction between host and bacteria in the gut mucosa is, of course, essential for host digestive efficiency and intestinal physiology, and plays a major role in the establishment of immune postnatal tolerance after birth, as well as in the maturation of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue [27, 56, 57]. Doubtlessly, the microbiota and the immune system of the host interact in a two-way street: while bacteria induce immune maturation, the host immune system regulates the number and the composition of the bacteria.

3. Adaptation of the Gut Mucosa to Bacterial Colonization

3.1. Crosstalk between Bacteria and Host Cells

The first exposure of the gut to bacterial ligands occurs during the passage though the birth canal or shortly thereafter. This interaction between colonizing bacteria and host cells has been shown to be crucial for the establishment of intestinal tolerance (Figure 1). Bacterial ligands are recognized by innate immune receptors, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which are expressed by intestinal epithelial cells throughout fetal, neonatal, and adult life. Both TLR2 and TLR4 are expressed in human fetal tissue from 18 weeks of gestation [58]. TLR1-5/9 and TLR1-9 have been detected in human small intestinal tissue and colon, respectively and TLR1-9 and TLR1-4/9 in murine small intestinal tissue and colon respectively [59]. Intestinal epithelial cells also express the cytosolic helicases retinoic acid-inducible gene I Rig-I and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 Mda5, sensing the presence of RNA and Nod-like receptors such as Nod1 and Nod2, sensing the DAP-type tripeptide motif or the muramyl-di-peptide motif of peptidoglycan, respectively. Epithelial Nod1 and Nod2 seem to synergistically protect the colon during Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica sv. Typhimurium (abbreviated Salmonella Typhimurium) infections [60].

Interestingly, we showed that the postnatal exposure of epithelial cells to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the endotoxin found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria which activates TLR4, drives the neonatal innate immune tolerance in epithelial cells [27, 38]. This state renders epithelial cells hyporesponsive to TLR stimuli and protects the gut during the maturation of the mechanisms involved in adult intestine homeostasis. At birth, the first contact between the LPS of the bacteria and the epithelial TLR4 induces the production of microRNA (miR)-146a, a small noncoding RNA. miR-146a specifically inhibits the translation of the interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK) 1, an essential kinase of the TLR4 pathway. In other words, the activation of TLR4 during birth induces the activation of an inhibitory loop through the expression of miR-146a, shutting down the ability of the cell to respond to TLR agonist. This state protects the gut during the first contact with bacteria, since the administration of an anti-miR-146a to neonates reestablishes the expression of IRAK1 in epithelial cells as well as TLR susceptibility and induces inflammation, apoptosis, and damages in the gut mucosa during bacterial colonization. On the contrary, the administration of a miR-146a mimic to caesarian-section born mice, which normally fail to decrease the epithelial IRAK1 level due to the lack of TLR4 activation in LPS-free conditions after birth and develop intestinal damages during colonization, rescues the intestinal phenotype. Moreover, the state sustains the expression of specific genes that are important for cell maturation, survival and nutrient absorption. The switch to an state progressively occurs after day 14, when cell proliferation increases, crypt-villus architecture appears and immune tolerance is acquired. The epithelial cells are able to respond to LPS stimulation and are fully functional to activate an inflammatory response against pathogens. Strikingly, the state in epithelial cells during the postnatal period seems to be maintained by an active constitutive signal mediated by internalized endotoxin. The loss of endotoxin is correlated to the increase of proliferation and allows the change from an to an state. Even though TLR signaling sensitivity is decreased in the neonatal intestinal epithelium, a number of other innate immune receptor signaling remain fully functional during this period. For example, the helicases Rig-I and Mda5 mediate the antiviral defense against rotavirus infection by promoting interferon λ production [61, 62].

Epithelial crosstalk with colonizing bacteria seems to be essential for immune tolerance since a specific epithelial lack of the proinflammatory transforming growth factor (TGF) β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) leads to early inflammation, Tnf-dependent induction of apoptosis, tissue damages, and postnatal mortality [63]. Similarly, spontaneous mucosal damages have been observed during early postnatal development of mice specifically deleted in epithelial p65/RelA NF-κB subunit. In inhibitor κB kinase (Ikk) 1/2 (also known as Ikk-α and β) knockout and myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (Myd88) dominant-negative mice, translocation of commensal bacteria is increased and inflammation occurs due to a lack of homeostatic signaling. Accordingly, epithelial-specific deficiency of Nemo (also known as Ikk-γ) and Ikk1/2 in a Myd88 knockout background does not cause inflammation [64]. Clearly, an active dialogue between colonizing bacteria and epithelial cells exists and is essential for the maintenance of homeostasis in the gut. With the use of germ-free mice and the development of high-throughput sequencing, this concept has been extensively studied, highlighting that this interaction drives several aspects of innate and acquired immune response of the host [65, 66]. In germ-free mice, the absence of microbiota impairs the immune development of the intestine, and mice exhibit underdeveloped gut-associated lymphoid tissue including rudimentary Peyer’s patches and intestinal follicles, reduced number of CD4⁺ T cells and immune effector molecules as wells as intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs), decreased MCH class II expression on antigen-presenting cells, and decreased immunoglobulin A (IgA) production [67–70]. Reconstitution of the microbiota or even inoculation of specific bacterial components such as polysaccharide A (PSA) largely corrects these deficiencies and reconstructs aspects of the mucosal immune system [71]. Thus, the presence of the microbiota in the gut allows the development of an extensive and activated intestinal immune system. Recent findings have given some keys about the way the microflora influences the development of the immune system. After detection of the microorganisms by innate immune receptors, epithelial cells produce cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-β which can regulate professional immune cells of the lamina propria. The balance between Th1, Th2, and Th17 responses has to be fine-tuned to maintain homeostasis. Particularly, CD4⁺CD25⁺ regulatory T (T_reg) cells contribute to the maintenance of self-tolerance, suppress inflammatory response by secreting anti-inflammatory cytokines, and can inhibit the function of antigen-presenting cells. The activation of intestinal epithelial cells by some commensals such as Clostridium spp. induces the production of TGF-β which in turn allow the accumulation of IL-10-producing Foxp3⁺ T_reg cells [8]. Also, migratory CD103⁺ CCR7⁺ dendritic cells are conditioned by microbial and epithelial-derived factors and promote the differentiation of Foxp3⁺ T_reg cells as well as IgA production by B cells [72]. Epithelial cells also react to the alterations of the immune system, and the gene expression profile can switch from metabolic activities to epithelial host defense in the absence of IgA, for example [73]. Meanwhile, segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) mediate Th17-cell as well as Th1 and T_reg population initiation, raising protection against bacterial infections [5]. Also, acetate from Bifidobacterium longum enhances intestinal barrier integrity through induction of antiinflammatory and antiapoptotic genes and protects mice from lethal infection with Escherichia coli O157:H7 [74]. The different mechanisms by which pathogens and commensals differentially activate the immune system of the host in the intestine remain partially understood and are extensively studied currently. It has been proposed that the immunologic distinction between pathogens and the microbiota is mediated by host mechanisms, and also via the recognition of specialized molecules evolved by symbiotic bacteria to enable commensal colonization, such as PSA from Bacteroides fragilis which activates TLR2 pathway on Foxp3⁺ T_reg to engender mucosal tolerance [75].

3.2. The Intestinal Mucus Layer as a Protective Barrier for the Host against Bacteria

The mucus barrier covering the intestinal mucosa forms a protective physical shield against bacteria and limits the microbial contacts with the host cells. The small intestine and the colon harbor different type of mucus layers. The small intestine is covered by a single layer of mucus mainly composed of the protein mucin 2 MUC2, released at the crypt openings [76]. Probably covering the villi, the mucus is unattached to the epithelium and is permeable to bacteria which can be trapped in the pores of the MUC2 network, bind the hydrophobic CysD mucin domains conferring stickiness to mucus, or bind the polymorphic and variable mucin glycans though their adhesins [76, 77]. By contrast to the small intestine for which a nonpermeable mucus layer would be detrimental for nutrition function, the colonic mucosa is covered by a dense and thick double layer of mucus [78]. The inner layer is attached to the epithelium and forms a compact bacteria-free coat, of around 50 μm thickness in mouse and up to several hundred μm in human. Secretions of goblet cells allow the inner mucus layer to be renewed and the upper part is converted to the loose permeable outer mucus layer which expands until 5 fold in volume due to endogenous protease activities acting on the MUC2 mucin, creating a habitat for the intestinal microbiota [79]. Bacteria utilize the released mucin monosaccharides as an energy source in addition to undigested carbohydrates from the food, thus producing short fatty acids able to diffuse through the inner mucus layer for the host.

The mucus layer clearly plays a major role in host/microbiota homeostasis. In mice deficient in MUC2, bacterial contact with the host mucosa is increased, leading to the development of spontaneous colitis, and later on, colorectal cancer [80, 81]. As described before, commensal bacteria generally use the mucus and adhere to the mucus matrix. Some of them, such as SFB, penetrate the mucus and directly interact with epithelial cells for the maturation of mucosal specialized immune cells [5, 6]. Moreover, some pathogenic bacteria such as Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium developed the ability to penetrate the mucus matrix to invade the epithelium by targeting goblet cells specifically [82, 83].

At birth, the production of mucin is low in the gut, especially in species exhibiting a nonfully mature intestine at birth. In mice, proliferation of the epithelium is extremely low until the second week after birth and is correlated with the number of goblet cells and mucus production [27, 84]. During the first 2 weeks, the intestinal epithelium developed specific strategies to tolerate the colonizing bacteria, such as secretion of neonate-specific antimicrobial peptides and constitutive active downregulation of the innate immune TLR4 pathway. By using mice with enterocyte-specific deletion of TLR4, Sodhi et al. demonstrated that TLR4 signaling prevents goblet cells differentiation by inhibiting Notch signaling, independently of the microbiota [85]. These findings might explain the low number of goblet and the low production of mucus during the 2 first weeks after birth, since the TLR4 signaling pathway is downregulated during this period [27]. Moreover, soluble factors contained in maternal milk also contribute to the protection of the neonates during breast feeding time and will be discussed later on. Of note, human milk contains mucin 1 and 4 which can bind pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella Typhimurium and by competition with the host immune receptors, inhibit the invasion of epithelial cells [86]. Also, human milk oligosaccharides favor the selection of specific bacteria such as Bifidobacterium infantis which are able to consume them via mucus-utilization pathways, facilitating milk and solid food digestion [87].

Soluble factors are also released by mucosal cells into the forming mucus layer and reinforce the protection provided since they are jammed in a gradient manner in the mucus matrix. Apart from antimicrobial peptides, some secreted enzymes modify microbial ligands and thus prevent innate immune recognition and activation by the host. Among them, the intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP), contained in enriched vesicles released by epithelial cells, impairs LPS recognition by dephosphorylating LPS molecules and limits bacterial growth [88]. Likewise, the amidase peptidoglycan recognition protein-2 (Pglyrp-2) secreted by intraepithelial lymphocytes cleaves the muramyl dipeptide of the peptidoglycan, which impairs the recognition by the immune intracellular receptor Nod2 [89].

3.3. Antimicrobial Peptides Regulate Commensal Flora and Protect against Pathogens

Among the secreted molecules involved in the establishment of tolerance and in homeostasis, antimicrobial peptides play an important role. In addition to their bactericidal effects, antimicrobial peptides exert immunomodulatory functions, such as proinflammatory and chemoattractive activities, wound healing activation, and dendritic cell responses modulation [90]. In mammals, these ancient gene-encoded antibiotics are divided in two families: Defensins and Cathelicidins. α- and β-defensins consist of about 30 amino acids forming a triple-strand β-sheet structure with three intramolecular disulfide bonds. Defensins exhibit a broad range of bactericidal activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and also against fungi, viruses, and protozoa. Since they are highly cationic, they interact with the negatively charged phospholipids of the outer membrane of bacteria to disrupt the membrane integrity [91]. In the gut, Paneth cells, located in the crypt of the small intestine, produce constitutively high amount of α-defensins, human α-defensin (HD) 5, and HD6 in humans and more than 20 (also named cryptdins) in mice [92]. In mice, Paneth cells also produce another related family of antimicrobial peptides, the cryptdin-related sequence (CRS) peptides [93]. α-defensins secretion counts for 70% of the secreted bactericidal activity in Paneth cells. On the other hand, β-defensin proteins are expressed in the colon, although mRNAs have been detected in the small intestine. β-Defensins are regulated on the transcriptional level after innate immune activation. Conversely, α-defensins are posttranscriptionally regulated by proteolytic cleavage by the matrix metalloproteinase 7 (MMP7 or matrilysin) in mice and by the endoprotease trypsin after secretion in humans. Notably, MMP7-deficient mice exhibit alterations in the composition of the microbiota [94]. They also have been shown to be more susceptible to Salmonella Typhimurium infections, oppositely to humanized mice expressing HD5 which are more resistant [95, 96]. Studies of the expression of defensins during development show some discrepancies, probably due to the use of different experimental approaches and techniques (mRNA versus protein levels, use of oligonucleotide probes detecting several members of this conserved family, etc.). Nevertheless, it seems that expression of α-defensins 4 and 5 in mice is microbiota dependent, since germ-free mice exhibit a reduced level [97]. During postnatal development, it has been also noticed that α-defensins 1,3, and 6 exhibit a gradual increase whereas α-defensins 2 and 5 exhibit a rapid increase correlated with the appearance of crypts and Paneth cells after 2 weeks.

Cathelicidins are secreted in the gut by a variety of cell types, including neutrophils, mast cells, and epithelial cells. Mature cathelicidins result from the proteolysis of the C terminus of cathelin-domain-containing protein precursors, hCAP18 in human and CRAMP in mice. In cattle and pig, the diversity of this family of peptide is much more diverse. As defensins, the antimicrobial activity of cathelicidins is related to their cationic amphipathic properties, but they differ in their structure since they form α-helical or β-hairpin structures. Strikingly, cathelicidins have been shown to play a major role in the establishment of tolerance in neonates. Especially in mice, CRAMP is highly expressed at birth and during the first 2 weeks of life, independently of the enteric microbiota. The expression gradually disappears with the formation of the crypts and appearance of Paneth cells secreting α-defensins, which then seem to take over the major antimicrobial activity in the small intestine [98]. Of note, similar changes in the composition of antimicrobial peptides and in bactericidal activity during the postnatal period in humans have been detected [99]. It also has been shown that CRAMP-deficient neonates are more susceptible to Listeria monocytogenes infections [98]. The eventual role of CRAMP in the establishment and selection of the enteric microflora still remains to be investigated.

At a lower extent, Paneth cells also secrete antimicrobial proteins, such as lysozyme P, secretory phospholipase A2, and the recently discovered C-type lectins Reg3β and Reg3γ [92]. Interestingly, it has been recently shown that, during the initial colonization of the gut, Reg3β and Reg3γ production known to be secreted is not only restricted to Paneth cells and absorptive enterocytes, since mRNAs were detected in goblet cells of small intestine and proximal colon between day 14 and 28 [100]. Recently, the active role of enterocytes in the control of bacterial load at the mucosal surface has been demonstrated by the fact that they produce Reg3γ through a pathway involving the interleukin (IL)-1R and TLR adaptor molecule Myd88 [101]. This production is at least in part supported by an intrinsic regulatory loop mediated by interleukin-22 (IL-22)-producing RORγt⁺ NKp46⁺ lymphocytes [102]. Reg3γ is essential to keep a 50 μm bacteria-free zone above the small intestine epithelial surface and the antimicrobial effect is related to the capacity of specifically targeting native peptidoglycans on bacterial surfaces [103]. Specific deletion of Myd88 in intestinal epithelial cells results in increased number of mucus-associated bacteria, translocation of bacteria, decrease of the expression of Reg3γ as well as MUC2, and differences in the composition of microbiota [104]. Myd88-dependent expression of Reg3γ is also particularly important against Gram-positive bacterial infections, such as Listeria monocytogenes [105].

3.4. Maternal and Soluble Factors Participating to the Establishment of Tolerance in the Gut

Immunological priming can start prenatally, and maternal immune-active components derived from the placenta can influence the development of the gut immune system [34]. Secretory antibodies, such as IgG, are mainly transferred via the placenta in human and mice during the prenatal period [106]. At birth, the immaturity of the gut renders the neonate particularly exposed to microbes, and additionally to all the mechanisms previously cited in this review, maternal factors transmitted to the neonate through breast milk bring supplementary immunoprotection and help for the development of the immune system. Of note, amniotic fluid contains similar components compared to colostrum and has been shown to favor immune tolerance towards colonizing microflora, and administration to preterm pigs delivered by caesarian-section is protective against necrotizing enterocolitis [107]. Human milk is composed of 40 g/L lipids, 8 g/L proteins, 70 g/L lactose, and 5–15 g/L oligosaccharides. Colostrum and early breast milk contain large amount of IgA, immune cells such as neutrophils, macrophages, colostral corpuscules and lymphocytes, as well as soluble mediators such as cytokines (interleukins, INF-γ, TGF-β, etc.), hormones and growth factors (insulin, EGF, VEGF, CSF, etc.), nonspecific immune factors (oligosaccharides, lactoferrin, lysozyme, etc.) and even certain microRNAs [108–111]. In humans, a breast-fed infant consumes around 10⁸ immune cells per day, consisting of 55–60% macrophages, 30–40% neutrophils, and 5–10% lymphocytes. Maternal macrophages persist in the lumen of the neonate’s gut during the first postnatal week and have even been found in the systemic circulation [112]. Also, maternal milk participates to the maturation of adaptive immune system since microRNAs associated with T-cell and B-cell differentiation have been detected [111]. As pointed before, analyses of the intestinal microbes of breast-fed human infants revealed that maternal milk also plays a role in shaping the microbiota. The breast-fed neonate is provided with 0.25–0.5 grams per day of secretory IgA antibodies via absorption of maternal milk. Maternal IgA restrict immune activation and microbial attachment by binding nutritional and microbial antigens. The appearance of IgA secreted by the neonate is correlated with weaning and plasma cells maturation. Of note, the specific deletion of Myd88 in intestinal epithelial cells induces a downregulation of polymeric immunoglobulin receptor, the epithelial IgA transporter, underlying the importance of Myd88 signaling in gut homeostasis [104]. Lactoferrin limits the pool of free iron and suppresses bacterial growth. Interestingly, miR-584 has been shown to induce the expression of the lactoferrin receptor in epithelial cells during the neonatal period [113]. The presence of oligosaccharides that can be utilized by specific bacteria such as Bifidobacterium longum spp. infantis also influences the composition of the neonatal microflora [114]. Interestingly, functional similarities between mammalian milk and crop “milk” produced by pigeons, flamingos, and emperor penguins to feed their young have been shown not only at the nutrition level, but also for the establishment of the immune system of the neonate and the maturation of the microbiota [115], which is particularly compelling from an evolutionary point of view. Thus, maternal milk contains factors to help the neonate to establish the microflora and to fight against pathogens. On the other hand, it also has been shown that it contains living bacteria (<3 log cfu/mL) and a range of bacterial components such as bacterial DNA [116]. Indeed, bacterial translocation from the mouse gut is increased during pregnancy and lactation, and bacterially loaded dendritic cells in the milk are thought to contribute to neonatal immune imprinting [117].

4. Neonatal Innate Immune Response, Infections, and Sepsis

4.1. Immune Stimulation, Epithelial Barrier Disruption, and Alteration of Microbiota

Proper development of immune tolerance is necessary for the maintenance of gut homeostasis and an efficient response against pathogens. Dysregulations of the mechanisms involved cannot only lead to inappropriate intestinal inflammation against microbiota such as inflammatory bowel diseases in some cases, but can also increase the susceptibility to bacterial infections and lead to neonatal sepsis [118]. In both human and mice, the immune response towards infections in the neonate is generally reduced compared to the adult response. Defects in mucosal immunity or even a response to infectious challenge can result in a dysbiosis, characterized by an altered commensal colonization of the gut. The disruption is usually a transient phenomenon, which is solved with the resolution of the infection and characterized by the return of the changed microbiota to baseline. However, some pathogens cleverly exploit host immunity to favor their invasion, such as Salmonella Typhimurium, Citrobacter rodentium, or Campylobacter jejuni [119]. The host response drives the disruption of the microbiota which enhances pathogen colonization and persistence, suggesting that host innate responses select for a characteristic microbiota composition.

Pathogenic bacteria also developed species-specific mechanisms to cross the epithelial barrier though their interaction with host cell receptors. For example, Salmonella Typhimurium utilizes the receptor for epidermal growth factor (EGF) of epithelial cells, and the entry of the bacteria is coincident with tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor. Also, both Salmonella Typhimurium and EGF induce patterns of host tyrosine phosphorylations that are remarkably similar [120]. Salmonella Typhimurium has also developed innate immune evasion mechanism such as O-antigen expression during apical intestinal epithelial invasion which delays the recognition of LPS by TLR4 [121]. In contrast, Listeria monocytogenes enters the enterocyte by using a zipper mechanism [122]. The mechanisms used by invasive Escherichia coli are different, and their capacity to inhibit NF-κB activity allows them to damp the inflammatory response of the host [123]. Inflammation leads to production of nitric oxide, which is known to alter expression and localization of the tight protein zonulin ZO-1, ZO-2, ZO-3, and occludin, and increases epithelium permeability which favors bacterial translocation [124]. As pointed before, bacterial translocation is also observed under physiological conditions, since systemic bacterial DNA has been detected in healthy volunteers, suggesting a role for bacterial translocation in the development of the immune system [125, 126].

The immaturity of the neonatal immune system explains the age-dependent differences of the immune responses against pathogens as well as the susceptibility to different type of infections. For example, newborns are highly susceptible to Shigella flexneri, the causative agent of human bacillary dysentery, due to the lack of Paneth cells during early postnatal development. Also, MMP7-deficient mice show an increased inflammation and higher bacterial load after oral infection compared to wild type [127]. Similarly, the susceptibility to rotavirus is restricted to children under the age of 6 in human and is highest in between day 3 and 11 in mice. Interestingly, an upregulation during infancy of TLR3 expression on intestinal epithelial cells, which are the prime target of rotavirus, has been observed. This increase might contribute to the age-dependent susceptibility to rotavirus infection [62, 128]. Also, neonates have been shown to be more prone to Salmonella Typhimurium infections, correlating with an age-dependent increase of INF-γ, important for epithelial defense against intracellular pathogens [129].

4.2. Microbial Pathogenesis of Neonatal Sepsis

Neonatal sepsis (NS) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among newborn infants, occurring in 1 to 10 per 1000 newborns, with a mortality rate of 15 to 50% [130, 131]. More than 10% of the neonates develop an infection during the first month of their life [132]. Despite the fact that symptoms are the same as an adult sepsis, the immune response of the neonate during NS is different. Due to the fact that the adaptive immune system of the neonate is not mature, the response induced is controlled by the innate immune system [133, 134]. Besides, no association was found between the TNF-α-308 G/A polymorphism blood culture-proven sepsis in very low birth weight infants, whereas the TNF-α-308 A allele is associated with higher sepsis in adult [135]. NS is clinically associated with a systemic infection during the 4 first weeks after birth, which can lead to pneumonia or meningitis. According to the time of symptoms appearance, NS is considered as early-onset neonatal sepsis (EONS) during the first 72 hours after birth, or late-onset neonatal sepsis (LONS) afterwards. This distinction largely contributed to improve the diagnostics and the treatment of this pathology, particularly because of the identification of the causative microorganism which varies depending on the age of the infant and also because of the origin of the infection depending on the time of appearance.

A number of pathogens have been associated with NS and the predominant agents are bacterial, but viruses including herpes simplex and enteroviruses have also been associated with fulminant neonatal sepsis with high mortality [136, 137]. Causative agents for EONS are mostly microorganisms colonizing the maternal genital tract [138]. The most frequent microorganisms involved in EONS are Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), Group B streptococci (GBS), Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Haemophilus influenzae [138–140]. LONS are mostly caused by microorganisms from the external environment, often carried by care staff or by horizontal transmission [141]. The most frequent microorganisms involved in LONS are GBS, CoNS, and Enterobacteriaceae, including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Acinetobacter baumannii [138, 142].

CoNS are responsible for 50% of LONS and more than half of very low birth weight infants are infected with CoNS, unlike full-term infants [143]. The recognition of CoNS by the innate immune system may have serious implications for preterm infants, since, for example, the expression of TLR4, although similar on term neonatal and adult monocytes [144], is significantly reduced in preterm infants [145]. The formation of biofilms by CoNS is essential for the pathogenicity of the bacteria by protecting themselves against host defense [146]. The polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (restricted to a subpopulation of Staphylococci epidermidis) and the poly-g-DL-glutamic acid (ubiquitous among Staphylococci epidermidis strains) protect the bacteria against cathelicidin and human β-defensin 3 [147, 148]. Moreover, the immaturity of the neonatal complement system impairs the capacity of neonates to fight against biofilm-associated Staphylococci epidermidis infections [149]. Interestingly, a study, dealing with the effects of lactoferrin with antibiotics commonly used in neonatal practice against CoNS, shows a synergic action, demonstrating that lactoferrin may be a promising agent to improve treatments of NS caused by CoNS [150].

If GBS is a component of the normal mucosal flora, in contrast, invasive GBS disease constitutes a rare event for which neonates present an increased risk. Neonates respond with a powerful inflammatory cytokine response to GBS and exhibit at the same time several deficiencies of components of the clearance mechanisms [151, 152]. Host factors underlying postnatal maturation and directly influencing elimination of GBS are likely to contribute to GBS sepsis in newborns. Extracellular GBS lipoproteins are known to interact with TLR2/6 and thereby contribute to GBS sepsis pathogenesis, and Myd88-dependent signaling is essential in innate immune response against GBS. Also, type I interferons (IFNs) and IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-12, and IL-18 contribute significantly to the course of GBS neonatal sepsis [153, 154]. The recognition of GBS and other Gram-positive bacteria by macrophages and monocytes relies on bacterial single-stranded RNA and phagocytosis induced NO in a Myd88 and UNC-93B-dependent manner but independently of known nucleotide-sensing TLRs [155, 156]. Recently, the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, leading to production of IL-1β and IL-18, was also shown to be involved in host defenses against this pathogen [157].

Listeria monocytogenes represents an opportunistic pathogen which mainly infects immunocompromised patients, pregnant woman, elderly persons, and neonates [158]. In neonatal infections, Listeria monocytogenes can be transmitted from mother to child in utero or during vaginal delivery. In a neonatal mouse model, neonatal mice overproduce IL-10 during infection, which is known to trigger a detrimental effect [159]. Indeed, IL-10 blockade in neonates is protective during both early and late infection, whereas this effect is only observed at early stage in adult mice [160]. As pointed before, the cathelicidin CRAMP is highly expressed during the neonatal period and plays a prominent role in the protection of the newborn against pathogenic enteric bacteria, and particularly against Listeria monocytogenes [98]. Activation of the PI3 kinase and Rac1 via a TLR2-MyD88-dependent pathway facilitates the phagocytosis of Listeria monocytogenes by murine macrophages. In intestinal epithelial cells, Listeria monocytogenes is recognized by immune receptors such as Nod2 and Ipaf, and the NADPH oxidase (Nox) 4-dependent production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) allows horizontal intercellular communication. This mechanism favors the amplification of the immune response against bacteria [161].

Some recent studies have highlighted a significant reduction in GBS EONS with the increased use of prophylactic antibiotics, leading to an increase of rates of non-GBS infection and particularly an increase in EONS caused by Escherichia coli [140]. Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) destroys intestinal microvilli and suppresses phagocytosis to facilitate efficient infection [162]. The bacterial protein Hek, which promotes adherence to and invasion into cultured epithelial cells, has a key role in the transcytosis of Escherichia coli across the intestinal epithelial barrier [163]. Moreover, gut barrier dysfunction was recently shown to be mediated by an increase of HMGB1 following LPS administration, supporting the deleterious effect of Escherichia coli on bacterial translocation and potentially sepsis [164]. In a murine model of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) infection, pretreatment with lactoferrin led to nearly full protection of gut-associated tissue, intact microvilli and decreases of activated cells [165]. Lactoferrin has also an inhibitory effect on the adherence of ETEC to epithelial cells [166].

4.3. Factors Involved in the Pathogenesis of Neonatal Sepsis

Commonly, associated risk factors to NS are maternal and environmental exposure, immune status, as well as the weight of the neonate at birth, and the time of the gestation period, making preterm and very low birth weight infants (<1500 g at birth) particularly susceptible [140]. The integrity of the intestinal barrier is a must to prevent the dissemination of microorganisms in the systemic compartment. Moreover, the level of permeability of the gut plays a key role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory pathologies such as ischemia-reperfusion or necrotizing enterocolitis, another inflammatory disorder leading to necrosis of the gut in neonates and particularly preterm infants [38, 167, 168]. Of note, an association between Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis has been shown [169]. Disruption of the neonatal barrier can be due to antibiotic treatment, hypoxia, or remote infection [170, 171].

Dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota also predisposes the intestine of neonates to inflammation. Indeed, many operational taxonomic units, which are frequently detected in healthy controls, were not detected in LONS cases [172]. This data suggests that a lack of colonization by various normal or nonpathogenic bacteria, rather than the presence of a pathogen, might increase the risk of LONS. Based on this finding, it has been proposed that a delay in colonization by proteobacteria, which is normal and immunologically well tolerated during the initial weeks of microbiota development, might result in an excessive immune response that compromises the integrity of the mucosal barrier, thereby allowing translocation of bacteria into the circulation resulting in LONS and extensive inflammation. Moreover, neonates developing sepsis present a low microbial diversity compared to healthy infants [173]. The specific mechanisms linking the intestinal microbial changes to sepsis remain unclear, but recent studies favor the idea that disruption of the normal intestinal microbiota and induction of the inflammasome are potential mechanisms [174, 175]. Moreover, the number of Bifidobacteria,known to colonize the healthy newborn intestine soon after birth and likely contribute to normal intestinal development, is lower in LONS infants compared to healthy controls [172, 176].

A protective effect of human breast milk against infection and sepsis/meningitis in very low birth weight as well as in full-term infants has been described [177]. The large amount of glycans in the milk seems to protect the neonate from many bacterial, viral, fungal, and other pathogens [178, 179]. Secretory IgA of the milk is known to inhibit the association of bacteria with the gut mucosa and reduce bacterial penetration in the gut. In neonates, IgA supplementation is known to avoid bacterial translocation by enhancing gut mucosal barrier function and therefore neonatal gut-origin sepsis [180, 181]. As pointed before, lactoferrin, which is present in human milk, is a component of innate immunity and has antimicrobial activity. In several in vitro and in vivo models, lactoferrin shows potent protective effect on infections with enteric microorganisms, such as Staphylococci epidermidis, Escherichia coli, and rotavirus [182–184]. Moreover, a recent study has shown the beneficial effects of oral lactoferrin prophylaxis for the prevention of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants [185].

The pathology of sepsis involves highly complex interactions between pathogens, immune response of the host, and multiple downstream events leading to organ dysfunction and death. Studies in twins suggest that genetic factors are also involved and contribute to variations in susceptibility to infections. Candidate genes have been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of sepsis [186, 187]. Several polymorphisms associated with neonatal sepsis have been identified in genes playing a role in host innate immunity: the phospholipase A2, the pattern recognition receptors TLR2 and TLR5, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, and the serum mannose-binding lectin (MBL) [188, 189]. Moreover, mutations of genes also involved in the innate immune system have been associated with sepsis in very low birth weight infants, such as CD14, TLR4, NOD2, IL-6, and MBL [190]. Identification of these genetic variations may allow the development of new diagnostic tools and more accurate predictors, as wells as the improvement of the classification of sepsis.

5. Conclusion

Outside the uterus, the neonate, which is a unique host immunologically, is exposed to environmental microbes and endotoxins. Immune adaptation of the gut to extrauterine life is extremely important and complex (Figures 2 and 3). External factors such as breast feeding, environment, or delivery mode, as well as genetic factors influence this process which is largely microbiota dependent. The microbiota is an essential complex and multifunction ecosystem which functions as an extra organ, shaping the immune system of the host, and is by itself sculpted by the host immunity. Indeed, interactions between microbiota/microbes components and intestinal epithelial cells largely drive the establishment of homeostasis during the neonatal period and also allow its maintenance during adult life. Pattern recognition receptors, seen initially as the first sentinel in the fight against microbes, play also obviously a major role in the tolerogenic response, and their signaling needs to be tightly fine-tuned spatially and temporally. Since the same receptors can have both beneficial and deleterious effects, the understanding of these aspects requires sustained efforts and probably more work on the animal models used currently, as well as on the tools to study the microbiota. Breaking the balance between all the players of the immune tolerance can induce inflammatory diseases and an increased susceptibility to infections. In neonates, the failure to establish immune tolerance leads to important mortality and morbidity and is particularly crucial for the survival of premature infants that are even more susceptible to infections and sepsis. Despite major advances in neonatal intensive care, infections and sepsis continue to be an important cause of death. A better understanding of the key mechanisms involved to establish and keep the balance between all the players of the immune tolerance will allow the discovery of efficient therapeutic and prophylactic tools to improve the medical care of those infants.

Figure 2

Factors involved in postnatal intestinal innate immune adaptation. The colonizing microflora and the intestinal mucosa interact in a two-way street to establish life-time tolerance and mutualism between each other. While bacteria activate innate immune pathways in host epithelial and immune cells inducing immune maturation and tolerance, mucosal cells produce factors (antimicrobial peptides AMPs, mucins, immunoglobulin A IgA, etc.) to control the number and the composition of bacteria. Microflora is also influenced by environmental factors (hygiene, lifestyle, etc.). Maternal factors, such as IgA, mucins, oligosaccharides, or other soluble factors, can modulate the microflora, and contribute to improve host immune defense and maturation (maternal immune cells, soluble factors, etc.).

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

Acknowledgments

The vast amount of literature led us to make choices and the authors apologize to all of those whose work is not cited in this review. Work in the group of C.C. is supported by an INSERM-CNRS ATIP-Avenir young group leader grant and a Sanofi-Aventis R&D grant.

References

L. V. Hooper, T. Midwedt, and J. I. Gordon, “How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine,” Annual Review of Nutrition, vol. 22, pp. 283–307, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Stecher, R. Robbiani, A. W. Walker et al., “Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium exploits inflammation to compete with the intestinal microbiota,” PLoS Biology, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 2177–2189, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Endt, B. Stecher, S. Chaffron et al., “The microbiota mediates pathogen clearance from the gut lumen after non-typhoidal Salmonella diarrhea,” PLoS Pathogens, vol. 6, no. 9, Article ID e1001097, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Slack, S. Hapfelmeier, B. Stecher et al., “Innate and adaptive immunity cooperate flexibly to maintain host-microbiota mutualism,” Science, vol. 325, no. 5940, pp. 617–620, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. I. Ivanov, K. Atarashi, N. Manel et al., “Induction of intestinal Th17 cells by segmented filamentous bacteria,” Cell, vol. 139, no. 3, pp. 485–498, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Gaboriau-Routhiau, S. Rakotobe, E. Lécuyer et al., “The key role of segmented filamentous bacteria in the coordinated maturation of gut helper T cell responses,” Immunity, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 677–689, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Cerf-Bensussan and V. Gaboriau-Routhiau, “The immune system and the gut microbiota: friends or foes?” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 10, no. 10, pp. 735–744, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Atarashi, T. Tanoue, T. Shima et al., “Induction of colonic regulatory T cells by indigenous Clostridium species,” Science, vol. 331, no. 6015, pp. 337–341, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. S. Garrett, J. I. Gordon, and L. H. Glimcher, “Homeostasis and inflammation in the intestine,” Cell, vol. 140, no. 6, pp. 859–870, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. J. Maloy and F. Powrie, “Intestinal homeostasis and its breakdown in inflammatory bowel disease,” Nature, vol. 474, no. 7351, pp. 298–306, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Cario, “Microbiota and innate immunity in intestinal inflammation and neoplasia,” Current Opinion in Gastroenterology, vol. 29, pp. 85–91, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Matsumoto, K. Hashimoto, T. Yoshioka, and H. Otani, “Occlusion and subsequent re-canalization in early duodenal development of human embryos: integrated organogenesis and histogenesis through a possible epithelial-mesenchymal interaction,” Anatomy and Embryology, vol. 205, no. 1, pp. 53–65, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. K. Noah, B. Donahue, and N. F. Shroyer, “Intestinal development and differentiation,” Experimental Cell Research, vol. 317, no. 9, pp. 2702–2710, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Savin, N. A. Kurpios, A. E. Shyer et al., “On the growth and form of the gut,” Nature, vol. 476, no. 7358, pp. 57–63, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. M. Braunstein, X. T. Qiao, B. Madison, K. Pinson, L. Dunbar, and D. L. Gumucio, “Villin: a marker for development of the epithelial pyloric border,” Developmental Dynamics, vol. 224, no. 1, pp. 90–102, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. S. Grosse, M. F. Pressprich, L. B. Curley et al., “Cell dynamics in fetal intestinal epithelium: implications for intestinal growth and morphogenesis,” Development, vol. 138, no. 20, pp. 4423–4432, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Hirano and K. Kataoka, “Histogenesis of the mouse jejunal mucosa, with special reference to proliferative cells and absorptive cells,” Archivum Histologicum Japonicum, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 333–348, 1986.
View at: Google Scholar
U. Gunther, J. A. Holloway, J. N. Gordon et al., “Phenotypic characterization of CD3⁻7⁺ cells in developing human intestine and an analysis of their ability to differentiate into T cells,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 174, no. 9, pp. 5414–5422, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
N. Barker, J. H. van Es, J. Kuipers et al., “Identification of stem cells in small intestine and colon by marker gene Lgr5,” Nature, vol. 449, no. 7165, pp. 1003–1007, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Guilmeau, M. Flandez, L. Bancroft et al., “Intestinal deletion of Pofut1 in the mouse inactivates notch signaling and causes enterocolitis,” Gastroenterology, vol. 135, no. 3, pp. 849–860, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. C. Hansson, “Role of mucus layers in gut infection and inflammation,” Current Opinion in Microbiology, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 57–62, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. R. McDole, L. W. Wheeler, K. G. McDonald et al., “Goblet cells deliver luminal antigen to CD103⁺ dendritic cells in the small intestine,” Nature, vol. 483, pp. 345–349, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Bogunovic, S. H. Davé, J. S. Tilstra et al., “Enteroendocrine cells express functional toll-like receptors,” American Journal of Physiology, vol. 292, no. 6, pp. G1770–G1783, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Ferri, L. C. U. Junqueira, L. F. Medeiros, and L. O. Medeiros, “Gross, microscopic and ultrastructural study of the intestinal tube of Xenodon merremii Wagler, 1824 (Ophidia),” Journal of Anatomy, vol. 121, no. 2, pp. 291–301, 1976.
View at: Google Scholar
P. A. Hall, P. J. Coates, B. Ansari, and D. Hopwood, “Regulation of cell number in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract: the importance of apoptosis,” Journal of Cell Science, vol. 107, part 12, pp. 3569–3577, 1994.
View at: Google Scholar
L. G. van der Flier and H. Clevers, “Stem cells, self-renewal, and differentiation in the intestinal epithelium,” Annual Review of Physiology, vol. 71, pp. 241–260, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Chassin, M. Kocur, J. Pott et al., “MiR-146a mediates protective innate immune tolerance in the neonate intestine,” Cell Host & Microbe, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 358–368, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Harper, A. Mould, R. M. Andrews, E. K. Bikoff, and E. J. Robertson, “The transcriptional repressor Blimp1/Prdm1 regulates postnatal reprogramming of intestinal enterocytes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 108, no. 26, pp. 10585–10590, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Muncan, J. Heijmans, S. D. Krasinski et al., “Blimp1 regulates the transition of neonatal to adult intestinal epithelium,” Nature Communications, vol. 2, p. 452, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. G. Schepers, H. J. Snippert, D. E. Stange et al., “Lineage tracing reveals Lgr5⁺ stem cell activity in mouse intestinal adenomas,” Science, vol. 337, pp. 730–735, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Romero, J. Nores, M. Mazor et al., “Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity during term labor: prevalence and clinical significance,” Journal of Reproductive Medicine for the Obstetrician and Gynecologist, vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 543–548, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar
D. B. DiGiulio, R. Romero, H. P. Amogan et al., “Microbial prevalence, diversity and abundance in amniotic fluid during preterm labor: a molecular and culture-based investigation,” PLoS One, vol. 3, no. 8, Article ID e3056, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. J. Giannone, B. L. Schanbacher, J. A. Bauer, and K. M. Reber, “Effects of prenatal lipopolysaccharide exposure on epithelial development and function in newborn rat intestine,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 284–290, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Blümer, P. I. Pfefferle, and H. Renz, “Development of mucosal immune function in the intrauterine and early postnatal environment,” Current Opinion in Gastroenterology, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 655–660, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. S. Cilieborg, M. Schmidt, K. Skovgaard et al., “Fetal lipopolysaccharide exposure modulates diet-dependent gut maturation and sensitivity to necrotising enterocolitis in pre-term pigs,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 106, no. 6, pp. 852–861, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. W. Schaedler, R. Dubos, and R. Costello, “The development of the bacterial flora in the gastrointestinal tract of mice,” The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 122, no. 1, pp. 59–66, 1965.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Hirayama, K. Miyaji, S. Kawamura, K. Itoh, E. Takahashi, and T. Mitsuoka, “Development of intestinal flora of human-flora-associated (HFA) mice in the intestine of their offspring,” Experimental Animals, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 219–222, 1995.
View at: Google Scholar
S. Stockinger, M. W. Hornef, and C. Chassin, “Establishment of intestinal homeostasis during the neonatal period,” Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, vol. 68, no. 22, pp. 3699–3712, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. A. Scholtens, R. Oozeer, R. Martin, K. B. Amor, and J. Knol, “The early settlers: intestinal microbiology in early life,” Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, vol. 3, pp. 425–447, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Tremaroli and F. Bäckhed, “Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism,” Nature, vol. 489, pp. 242–249, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. El Aidy, G. Hooiveld, V. Tremaroli, F. Bäckhed, and M. Kleerebezem, “The gut microbiota and mucosal homeostasis: colonized at birth or at adulthood, does it matter?” Gut Microbes, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 118–124, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. G. Dominguez-Bello, E. K. Costello, M. Contreras et al., “Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 107, no. 26, pp. 11971–11975, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Eggesbø, B. Moen, S. Peddada et al., “Development of gut microbiota in infants not exposed to medical interventions,” APMIS, vol. 119, no. 1, pp. 17–35, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. M. Grönlund, O. P. Lehtonen, E. Eerola, and P. Kero, “Fecal microflora in healthy infants born by different methods of delivery: permanent changes in intestinal flora after cesarean delivery,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 19–25, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Matsumiya, N. Kato, K. Watanabe, and H. Kato, “Molecular epidemiological study of vertical transmission of vaginal Lactobacillus species from mothers to newborn infants in Japanese, by arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction,” Journal of Infection and Chemotherapy, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 43–49, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
R. Mändar and M. Mikelsaar, “Transmission of mother's microflora to the newborn at birth,” Biology of the Neonate, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 30–35, 1996.
View at: Google Scholar
S. Fanaro, R. Chierici, P. Guerrini, and V. Vigi, “Intestinal microflora in early infancy: composition and development,” Acta Paediatrica, International Journal of Paediatrics, Supplement, vol. 91, no. 441, pp. 48–55, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
E. Decker, M. Hornef, and S. Stockinger, “Cesarean delivery is associated with celiac disease but not inflammatory bowel disease in children,” Gut Microbes, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 91–98, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
E. K. Costello, C. L. Lauber, M. Hamady, N. Fierer, J. I. Gordon, and R. Knight, “Bacterial community variation in human body habitats across space and time,” Science, vol. 326, no. 5960, pp. 1694–1697, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. E. Koenig, A. Spor, N. Scalfone et al., “Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 108, supplement 1, pp. 4578–4585, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. G. Zoetendal, K. Ben-Amor, A. D. L. Akkermans, T. Abee, and W. M. de Vos, “DNA isolation protocols affect the detection limit of PCR approaches of bacteria in samples from the human gastrointestinal tract,” Systematic and Applied Microbiology, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 405–410, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
P. J. Turnbaugh, M. Hamady, T. Yatsunenko et al., “A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins,” Nature, vol. 457, no. 7228, pp. 480–484, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. L. Bevins and N. H. Salzman, “The potter's wheel: the host's role in sculpting its microbiota,” Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, vol. 68, no. 22, pp. 3675–3685, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Bäckhed, R. E. Ley, J. L. Sonnenburg, D. A. Peterson, and J. I. Gordon, “Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine,” Science, vol. 307, no. 5717, pp. 1915–1920, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. V. Srikanth and B. A. McCormick, “Interactions of the intestinal epithelium with the pathogen and the indigenous microbiota: a three-way crosstalk,” Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases, vol. 2008, Article ID 626827, 14 pages, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Brandtzaeg, I. N. Farstad, G. Haraldsen, and F. L. Jahnsen, “Cellular and molecular mechanisms for induction of mucosal immunity,” Developments in Biological Standardization, vol. 92, pp. 93–108, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
H. Renz, P. Brandtzaeg, and M. Hornef, “The impact of perinatal immune development on mucosal homeostasis and chronic inflammation,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 12, pp. 9–23, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
R. D. Fusunyan, N. N. Nanthakumar, M. E. Baldeon, and W. A. Walker, “Evidence for an innate immune response in the immature human intestine: toll-like receptors on fetal enterocytes,” Pediatric Research, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 589–593, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
M. T. Abreu, “Toll-like receptor signalling in the intestinal epithelium: how bacterial recognition shapes intestinal function,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 131–143, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Geddes, S. Rubino, C. Streutker et al., “Nod1 and Nod2 regulation of inflammation in the Salmonella colitis model,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 78, no. 12, pp. 5107–5115, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. H. Broquet, Y. Hirata, C. S. McAllister, and M. F. Kagnoff, “RIG-I/MDA5/MAVS are required to signal a protective IFN response in rotavirus-infected intestinal epithelium,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 186, no. 3, pp. 1618–1626, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Pott, T. Mahlakõiv, M. Mordstein et al., “IFN-λ determines the intestinal epithelial antiviral host defense,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 108, no. 19, pp. 7944–7949, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Kajino-Sakamoto, M. Inagaki, E. Lippert et al., “Enterocyte-derived TAK1 signaling prevents epithelium apoptosis and the development of ileitis and colitis,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 181, no. 2, pp. 1143–1152, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
A. Nenci, C. Becker, A. Wullaert et al., “Epithelial NEMO links innate immunity to chronic intestinal inflammation,” Nature, vol. 446, no. 7135, pp. 557–561, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. L. Round and S. K. Mazmanian, “The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 313–323, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. I. Ivanov and K. Honda, “Intestinal commensal microbes as immune modulators,” Cell Host & Microbe, vol. 12, pp. 496–508, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Bouskra, C. Brézillon, M. Bérard et al., “Lymphoid tissue genesis induced by commensals through NOD1 regulates intestinal homeostasis,” Nature, vol. 456, no. 7221, pp. 507–510, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. V. Hooper, T. S. Stappenbeck, C. V. Hong, and J. I. Gordon, “Angiogenins: a new class of microbicidal proteins involved in innate immunity,” Nature Immunology, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 269–273, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. L. Cash, C. V. Whitham, C. L. Behrendt, and L. V. Hooper, “Symbiotic bacteria direct expression of an intestinal bactericidal lectin,” Science, vol. 313, no. 5790, pp. 1126–1130, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. J. Macpherson and T. Uhr, “Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria,” Science, vol. 303, no. 5664, pp. 1662–1665, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. K. Mazmanian, C. H. Liu, A. O. Tzianabos, and D. L. Kasper, “An immunomodulatory molecule of symbiotic bacteria directs maturation of the host immune system,” Cell, vol. 122, no. 1, pp. 107–118, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. L. Coombes and F. Powrie, “Dendritic cells in intestinal immune regulation,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 435–446, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Shulzhenko, A. Morgun, W. Hsiao et al., “Crosstalk between B lymphocytes, microbiota and the intestinal epithelium governs immunity versus metabolism in the gut,” Nature Medicine, vol. 17, pp. 1585–1593, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Fukuda, H. Toh, K. Hase et al., “Bifidobacteria can protect from enteropathogenic infection through production of acetate,” Nature, vol. 469, no. 7331, pp. 543–549, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. L. Round, S. M. Lee, J. Li et al., “The toll-like receptor 2 pathway establishes colonization by a commensal of the human microbiota,” Science, vol. 332, no. 6032, pp. 974–977, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Atuma, V. Strugala, A. Allen, and L. Holm, “The adherent gastrointestinal mucus gel layer: thickness and physical state in vivo,” American Journal of Physiology, vol. 280, no. 5, pp. G922–G929, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
D. Ambort, S. van der Post, M. E. V. Johansson et al., “Function of the CysD domain of the gel-forming MUC2 mucin,” Biochemical Journal, vol. 436, no. 1, pp. 61–70, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. E. V. Johansson, M. Phillipson, J. Petersson, A. Velcich, L. Holm, and G. C. Hansson, “The inner of the two Muc2 mucin-dependent mucus layers in colon is devoid of bacteria,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 105, no. 39, pp. 15064–15069, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. E. V. Johansson, J. M. Larsson, and G. C. Hansson, “The two mucus layers of colon are organized by the MUC2 mucin, whereas the outer layer is a legislator of host-microbial interactions,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 108, supplement 1, pp. 4659–4665, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. E. V. Johansson, J. K. Gustafsson, K. E. Sjöberg et al., “Bacteria penetrate the inner mucus layer before inflammation in the dextran sulfate colitis model,” PLoS One, vol. 5, no. 8, Article ID e12238, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. van der Sluis, B. A. E. de Koning, A. C. J. M. de Bruijn et al., “Muc2-deficient mice spontaneously develop colitis, indicating that MUC2 is critical for colonic protection,” Gastroenterology, vol. 131, no. 1, pp. 117–129, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. K. Meyerholz, T. J. Stabel, M. R. Ackermann, S. A. Carlson, B. D. Jones, and J. Pohlenz, “Early epithelial invasion by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium DT104 in the swine ileum,” Veterinary Pathology, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 712–720, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
G. Nikitas, C. Deschamps, O. Disson et al., “Transcytosis of Listeria monocytogenes across the intestinal barrier upon specific targeting of goblet cell accessible E-cadherin,” The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 208, no. 11, pp. 2263–2277, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Crosnier, D. Stamataki, and J. Lewis, “Organizing cell renewal in the intestine: stem cells, signals and combinatorial control,” Nature Reviews Genetics, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 349–359, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. P. Sodhi, M. D. Neal, R. Siggers et al., “Intestinal epithelial toll-like receptor 4 regulates goblet cell development and is required for necrotizing enterocolitis in mice,” Gastroenterology, vol. 143, no. 3, pp. 708–718, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Liu, Z. Yu, C. Chen, D. E. Kling, and D. S. Newburg, “Human milk mucin 1 and mucin 4 inhibit Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium invasion of human intestinal epithelial cells in vitro,” Journal of Nutrition, vol. 142, pp. 1504–1509, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Marcobal, M. Barboza, E. D. Sonnenburg et al., “Bacteroides in the infant gut consume milk oligosaccharides via mucus-utilization pathways,” Cell Host & Microbe, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 507–514, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. A. Shifrin, R. E. McConnell, R. Nambiar, J. N. Higginbotham, R. J. Coffey, and M. J. Tyska, “Enterocyte microvillus-derived vesicles detoxify bacterial products and regulate epithelial-microbial interactions,” Current Biology, vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 627–631, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. U. Duerr, N. H. Salzman, A. Dupont et al., “Control of intestinal Nod2-mediated peptidoglycan recognition by epithelium-associated lymphocytes,” Mucosal Immunology, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 325–334, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Lai and R. L. Gallo, “AMPed up immunity: how antimicrobial peptides have multiple roles in immune defense,” Trends in Immunology, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 131–141, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. H. Salzman, M. A. Underwood, and C. L. Bevins, “Paneth cells, defensins, and the commensal microbiota: a hypothesis on intimate interplay at the intestinal mucosa,” Seminars in Immunology, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 70–83, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. L. Bevins and N. H. Salzman, “Paneth cells, antimicrobial peptides and maintenance of intestinal homeostasis,” Nature Reviews Microbiology, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 356–368, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. W. Hornef, K. Pütsep, J. Karlsson, E. Refai, and M. Andersson, “Increased diversity of intestinal antimicrobial peptides by covalent dimer formation,” Nature Immunology, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 836–843, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. H. Salzman, K. Hung, D. Haribhai et al., “Enteric defensins are essential regulators of intestinal microbial ecology,” Nature Immunology, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 76–83, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. L. Wilson, A. J. Ouellette, D. P. Satchell et al., “Regulation of intestinal α-defensin activation by the metalloproteinase matrilysin in innate host defense,” Science, vol. 286, no. 5437, pp. 113–117, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. H. Salzman, D. Ghosh, K. M. Huttner, Y. Paterson, and C. L. Bevins, “Protection against enteric salmonellosis in transgenic mice expressing a human intestinal defensin,” Nature, vol. 422, no. 6931, pp. 522–526, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Inoue, T. Tsuruta, I. Nojima, K. Nakayama, T. Tsukahara, and T. Yajima, “Postnatal changes in the expression of genes for cryptdins 1-6 and the role of luminal bacteria in cryptdin gene expression in mouse small intestine,” FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 407–416, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Ménard, V. Förster, M. Lotz et al., “Developmental switch of intestinal antimicrobial peptide expression,” The Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 205, no. 1, pp. 183–193, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Kai-Larsen, G. Bergsson, G. H. Gudmundsson et al., “Antimicrobial components of the neonatal gut affected upon colonization,” Pediatric Research, vol. 61, no. 5, pp. 530–536, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Burger-van Paassen, L. M. Loonen, J. Witte-Bouma et al., “Mucin Muc2 deficiency and weaning influences the expression of the innate defense genes Reg3β, Reg3γ and angiogenin-4,” PLoS One, vol. 7, Article ID e38798, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
S. Vaishnava, M. Yamamoto, K. M. Severson et al., “The antibacterial lectin RegIIIgamma promotes the spatial segregation of microbiota and host in the intestine,” Science, vol. 334, no. 6053, pp. 255–258, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. L. Sanos, V. L. Bui, A. Mortha et al., “RORγt and commensal microflora are required for the differentiation of mucosal interleukin 22-producing NKp46⁺ cells,” Nature Immunology, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 83–91, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. E. Lehotzky, C. L. Partch, S. Mukherjee et al., “Molecular basis for peptidoglycan recognition by a bactericidal lectin,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 107, no. 17, pp. 7722–7727, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. L. Frantz, E. W. Rogier, C. R. Weber et al., “Targeted deletion of MyD88 in intestinal epithelial cells results in compromised antibacterial immunity associated with downregulation of polymeric immunoglobulin receptor, mucin-2, and antibacterial peptides,” Mucosal Immunology, vol. 5, pp. 501–512, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Brandl, G. Plitas, B. Schnabl, R. P. DeMatteo, and E. G. Pamer, “MyD88-mediated signals induce the bactericidal lectin RegIIIγ and protect mice against intestinal Listeria monocytogenes infection,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 204, no. 8, pp. 1891–1900, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. L. Harris, I. Spoerri, J. F. Schopfer et al., “Mechanisms of neonatal mucosal antibody protection,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 177, no. 9, pp. 6256–6262, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
J. L. Siggers, M. V. Ostergaard, R. H. Siggers et al., “Postnatal amniotic fluid intake reduces gut inflammatory responses and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm neonates,” American Journal of Physiology, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Garofalo, “Cytokines in human milk,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 156, no. 2, pp. S36–S40, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. S. Goldman, “The immune system of human milk: antimicrobial, antiinflammatory and immunomodulating properties,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 664–671, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar
A. G. Cummins and F. M. Thompson, “Postnatal changes in mucosal immune response: a physiological perspective of breast feeding and weaning,” Immunology and Cell Biology, vol. 75, no. 5, pp. 419–429, 1997.
View at: Google Scholar
N. Kosaka, H. Izumi, K. Sekine, and T. Ochiya, “MicroRNA as a new immune-regulatory agent in breast milk,” Silence, vol. 1, no. 1, article 7, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. L. Wagner, S. N. Taylor, and D. Johnson, “Host factors in amniotic fluid and breast milk that contribute to gut maturation,” Clinical Reviews in Allergy and Immunology, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 191–204, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Liao and B. Lönnerdal, “MiR-584 mediates post-transcriptional expression of lactoferrin receptor in Caco-2 cells and in mouse small intestine during the perinatal period,” International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, vol. 42, no. 8, pp. 1363–1369, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. A. Sela, J. Chapman, A. Adeuya et al., “The genome sequence of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis reveals adaptations for milk utilization within the infant microbiome,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 105, no. 48, pp. 18964–18969, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. J. Gillespie, D. Stanley, H. Chen et al., “Functional similarities between pigeon ‘milk’ and mammalian milk: induction of immune gene expression and modification of the microbiota,” PLoS One, vol. 7, Article ID e48363, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
P. F. Perez, J. Doré, M. Leclerc et al., “Bacterial imprinting of the neonatal immune system: lessons from maternal cells?” Pediatrics, vol. 119, no. 3, pp. e724–e732, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Donnet-Hughes, P. F. Perez, J. Doré et al., “Potential role of the intestinal microbiota of the mother in neonatal immune education,” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 407–415, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Comito and C. Romano, “Dysbiosis in the pathogenesis of pediatric inflammatory bowel diseases,” International Journal of Inflammation, vol. 2012, Article ID 687143, 7 pages, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Lupp, M. L. Robertson, M. E. Wickham et al., “Host-mediated inflammation disrupts the intestinal microbiota and promotes the overgrowth of Enterobacteriaceae,” Cell Host & Microbe, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 119–129, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. E. Galán, J. Pace, and M. J. Hayman, “Involvement of the epidermal growth factor receptor in the invasion of cultured mammalian cells by Salmonella typhimurium,” Nature, vol. 357, no. 6379, pp. 588–589, 1992.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. U. Duerr, S. F. Zenk, C. Chassin et al., “O-antigen delays lipopolysaccharide recognition and impairs antibacterial host defense in murine intestinal epithelial cells,” PLoS Pathogens, vol. 5, no. 9, Article ID e1000567, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. P. Sherman, “New concepts of microbial translocation in the neonatal intestine: mechanisms and prevention,” Clinics in Perinatology, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 565–579, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. H. Ruchaud-Sparagano, S. Mühlen, P. Dean, and B. Kenny, “The enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) Tir effector inhibits NF-κB activity by targeting TNFα receptor-associated factors,” PLoS Pathogens, vol. 7, Article ID e1002414, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. J. Anand, C. L. Leaphart, K. P. Mollen, and D. J. Hackam, “The role of the intestinal barrier in the pathogenesis of necrotizing enterocolitis,” Shock, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 124–133, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Nikkari, I. J. McLaughlin, W. Bi, D. E. Dodge, and D. A. Relman, “Does blood of healthy subjects contain bacterial ribosomal DNA?” Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 1956–1959, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. O. Gebbers and J. A. Laissue, “Bacterial translocation in the normal human appendix parallels the development of the local immune system,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 1029, pp. 337–343, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. H. Shim, S. Ryu, and M. N. Kweon, “Defensins play a crucial role in protecting mice against oral Shigella flexneri infection,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 401, no. 4, pp. 554–560, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Pott, S. Stockinger, N. Torow et al., “Age-dependent TLR3 expression of the intestinal epithelium contributes to rotavirus susceptibility,” PLoS Pathogens, vol. 8, no. 5, Article ID e1002670, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
S. J. Rhee, W. A. Walker, and B. J. Cherayil, “Developmentally regulated intestinal expression of IFN-γ and its target genes and the age-specific response to enteric Salmonella infection,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 175, no. 2, pp. 1127–1136, 2005.
View at: Google Scholar
I. Nupponen, S. Andersson, A. L. Järvenpää, H. Kautiainen, and H. Repo, “Neutrophil CD11b expression and circulating interleukin-8 as diagnostic markers for early-onset neonatal sepsis,” Pediatrics, vol. 108, no. 1, p. E12, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
J. E. Lawn, S. Cousens, and J. Zupan, “4 million neonatal deaths: when? Where? Why?” The Lancet, vol. 365, no. 9462, pp. 891–900, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. J. Stoll, N. I. Hansen, R. D. Higgins et al., “Very low birth weight preterm infants with early onset neonatal sepsis: the predominance of Gram-negative infections continues in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, 2002-2003,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 24, no. 7, pp. 635–639, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. S. Hotchkiss, K. W. Tinsley, P. E. Swanson et al., “Depletion of dendritic cells, but not macrophages, in patients with sepsis,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 168, no. 5, pp. 2493–2500, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
J. L. Wynn, P. O. Seumpia, R. D. Winfield et al., “Defective innate immunity predisposes murine neonates to poor sepsis outcome but is reversed by TLR agonists,” Blood, vol. 112, no. 5, pp. 1750–1758, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Härtel, C. Hemmelmann, K. Faust et al., “Tumor necrosis factor-α promoter -308 G/A polymorphism and susceptibility to sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants,” Critical Care Medicine, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 1190–1195, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. I. Kawada, H. Kimura, Y. Ito et al., “Evaluation of systemic inflammatory responses in neonates with herpes simplex virus infection,” Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 190, no. 3, pp. 494–498, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Verboon-Maciolek, T. G. Krediet, L. J. Gerards, A. Fleer, and T. M. van Loon, “Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of viral infections in a neonatal intensive care unit during a 12-year period,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 901–904, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Paolucci, M. P. Landini, and V. Sambri, “How can the microbiologist help in diagnosing neonatal sepsis?” International Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 2012, Article ID 120139, 14 pages, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Klinger, I. Levy, L. Sirota, V. Boyko, B. Reichman, and L. Lerner-Geva, “Epidemiology and risk factors for early onset sepsis among very-low-birthweight infants,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 201, no. 1, pp. e31–e36, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. J. Stoll, N. I. Hansen, P. J. Sánchez et al., “Early onset neonatal sepsis: the burden of group B streptococcal and E. coli disease continues,” Pediatrics, vol. 127, no. 5, pp. 817–826, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Morinis, J. Shah, P. Murthy, and M. Fulford, “Horizontal transmission of group B streptococcus in a neonatal intensive care unit,” Paediatr Child Health, vol. 16, pp. e48–e50, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
J. H. Jiang, N. C. Chiu, F. Y. Huang et al., “Neonatal sepsis in the neonatal intensive care unit: characteristics of early versus late onset,” Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 301–306, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
C. M. Healy, D. L. Palazzi, M. S. Edwards, J. R. Campbell, and C. J. Baker, “Features of invasive staphylococcal disease in neonates,” Pediatrics, vol. 114, no. 4, pp. 953–961, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
O. Levy, K. A. Zarember, R. M. Roy, C. Cywes, P. J. Godowski, and M. R. Wessels, “Selective impairment of TLR-mediated innate immunity in human newborns: neonatal blood plasma reduces monocyte TNF-α induction by bacterial lipopeptides, lipopolysaccharide, and imiquimod, but preserves the response to R-848,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 173, no. 7, pp. 4627–4634, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
E. Förster-Waldl, K. Sadeghi, D. Tamandl et al., “Monocyte toll-like receptor 4 expression and LPS-induced cytokine production increase during gestational aging,” Pediatric Research, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 121–124, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Otto, “Virulence factors of the coagulase-negative staphylococci,” Frontiers in Bioscience, vol. 9, pp. 841–863, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
C. Vuong, J. M. Voyich, E. R. Fischer et al., “Polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) protects Staphylococcus epidermidis against major components of the human innate immune system,” Cellular Microbiology, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 269–275, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Kocianova, C. Vuong, Y. Yao et al., “Key role of poly-γ-DL-glutamic acid in immune evasion and virulence of Staphylococcus epidermidis,” Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 115, no. 3, pp. 688–694, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. N. Granslo, C. Klingenberg, E. A. Fredheim, G. Acharya, T. E. Mollnes, and T. Flægstad, “Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms induce lower complement activation in neonates as compared with adults,” Pediatric Research, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 294–300, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. P. Venkatesh and L. Rong, “Human recombinant lactoferrin acts synergistically with antimicrobials commonly used in neonatal practice against coagulase-negative staphylococci and Candida albicans causing neonatal sepsis,” Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 57, no. 9, pp. 1113–1121, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. S. Doran and V. Nizet, “Molecular pathogenesis of neonatal group B streptococcal infection: no longer in its infancy,” Molecular Microbiology, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 23–31, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Henneke and R. Berner, “Interaction of neonatal phagocytes with group B streptococcus: recognition and Response,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 74, no. 6, pp. 3085–3095, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Kenzel, S. Santos-Sierra, S. D. Deshmukh et al., “Role of p38 and early growth response factor 1 in the macrophage response to group B streptococcus,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 2474–2481, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Henneke, S. Dramsi, G. Mancuso et al., “Lipoproteins are critical TLR2 activating toxins in group B streptococcal sepsis,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 180, no. 9, pp. 6149–6158, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
S. D. Deshmukh, B. Kremer, M. Freudenberg, S. Bauer, D. T. Golenbock, and P. Henneke, “Macrophages recognize streptococci through bacterial single-stranded RNA,” EMBO Reports, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 71–76, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. D. Deshmukh, S. Müller, K. Hese et al., “NO is a macrophage autonomous modifier of the cytokine response to streptococcal single-stranded RNA,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 188, pp. 774–780, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Costa, R. Gupta, G. Signorino et al., “Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome by group B streptococci,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 188, pp. 1953–1960, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Cekmez, C. Tayman, C. Saglam et al., “Well-known but rare pathogen in neonates: Listeria monocytogenes,” European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, vol. 16, supplement 4, pp. 58–61, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
W. Dai, G. Köhler, and F. Brombacher, “Both innate and acquired immunity to Listeria monocytogenes infection are increased in IL-10-deficient mice,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 158, no. 5, pp. 2259–2267, 1997.
View at: Google Scholar
F. Genovese, G. Mancuso, M. Cuzzola et al., “Role of IL-10 in a neonatal mouse listeriosis model,” Journal of Immunology, vol. 163, no. 5, pp. 2777–2782, 1999.
View at: Google Scholar
T. Dolowschiak, C. Chassin, S. B. Mkaddem et al., “Potentiation of epithelial innate host responses by intercellular communication,” PLoS Pathogens, vol. 6, no. 11, Article ID e1001194, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Iizumi, H. Sagara, Y. Kabe et al., “The enteropathogenic E. coli effector EspB facilitates microvillus effacing and antiphagocytosis by inhibiting myosin function,” Cell Host & Microbe, vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 383–392, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. P. Fagan, M. A. Lambert, and S. G. J. Smith, “The Hek outer membrane protein of Escherichia coli strain RS218 binds to proteoglycan and utilizes a single extracellular loop for adherence, invasion, and autoaggregation,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. 1135–1142, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Yang, K. Miki, N. Oksala et al., “Bile high-mobility group box 1 contributes to gut barrier dysfunction in experimental endotoxemia,” American Journal of Physiology, vol. 297, no. 2, pp. R362–R369, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. K. Actor, S. A. Hwang, and M. L. Kruzel, “Lactoferrin as a natural immune modulator,” Current Pharmaceutical Design, vol. 15, no. 17, pp. 1956–1973, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Kawasaki, S. Tazume, K. Shimizu et al., “Inhibitory effects of bovine lactoferrin on the adherence of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli to host cells,” Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry, vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 348–354, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
R. Sharma, J. J. Tepas, M. L. Hudak et al., “Neonatal gut barrier and multiple organ failure: role of endotoxin and proinflammatory cytokines in sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis,” Journal of Pediatric Surgery, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 454–461, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Chassin, C. Hempel, S. Stockinger et al., “MicroRNA-146a-mediated downregulation of IRAK1 protects mouse and human small intestine against ischemia/reperfusion injury,” EMBO Molecular Medicine, vol. 4, no. 12, pp. 1308–1319, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Leigh, B. J. Stoll, M. Rahman, and J. McGowan, “Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in very low birth weight infants: a case- control study,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 367–371, 1995.
View at: Google Scholar
J. Neu, “Gastrointestinal maturation and implications for infant feeding,” Early Human Development, vol. 83, no. 12, pp. 767–775, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. L. Wynn, J. Neu, L. L. Moldawer, and O. Levy, “Potential of immunomodulatory agents for prevention and treatment of neonatal sepsis,” Journal of Perinatology, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 79–88, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Mai, R. M. Torrazza, M. Ukhanova et al., “Distortions in development of intestinal microbiota associated with late onset sepsis in preterm infants,” PLoS One, vol. 8, no. 1, Article ID e52876, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. C. Madan, R. C. Salari, D. Saxena et al., “Gut microbial colonisation in premature neonates predicts neonatal sepsis,” Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition, vol. 97, no. 6, pp. F456–F462, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. S. Ayres, N. J. Trinidad, and R. E. Vance, “Lethal inflammasome activation by a multidrug-resistant pathobiont upon antibiotic disruption of the microbiota,” Nature Medicine, vol. 18, pp. 799–806, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Bordon, “Mucosal immunology: inflammasomes induce sepsis following community breakdown,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 12, pp. 400–401, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
E. Bezirtzoglou and E. Stavropoulou, “Immunology and probiotic impact of the newborn and young children intestinal microflora,” Anaerobe, vol. 17, pp. 369–374, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. A. Hylander, D. M. Strobino, and R. Dhanireddy, “Human milk feedings and infection among very low birth weight infants,” Pediatrics, vol. 102, no. 3, p. E38, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
A. L. Morrow, G. M. Ruiz-Palacios, M. Altaye et al., “Human milk oligosaccharides are associated with protection against diarrhea in breast-fed infants,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 145, no. 3, pp. 297–303, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. S. Newburg, G. M. Ruiz-Palacios, M. Altaye et al., “Innate protection conferred by fucosylated oligosaccharides of human milk against diarrhea in breastfed infants,” Glycobiology, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 253–263, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. T. Maxson, D. D. Johnson, R. J. Jackson, and S. D. Smith, “The protective role of enteral IgA supplementation in neonatal gut-origin sepsis,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 778, pp. 405–407, 1996.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. C. Dickinson, J. C. Gorga, M. Garrett et al., “Immunoglobulin A supplementation abrogates bacterial translocation and preserves the architecture of the intestinal epithelium,” Surgery, vol. 124, no. 2, pp. 284–290, 1998.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Flores-Villaseñor, A. Canizalez-Román, J. Velazquez-Roman et al., “Protective effects of lactoferrin chimera and bovine lactoferrin in a mouse model of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection,” Biochemistry and Cell Biology, vol. 90, pp. 405–411, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. J. Ochoa and T. G. Cleary, “Effect of lactoferrin on enteric pathogens,” Biochimie, vol. 91, no. 1, pp. 30–34, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. P. Venkatesh, D. Pham, L. Kong, and L. E. Weisman, “Prophylaxis with lactoferrin, a novel antimicrobial agent, in a neonatal rat model of coinfection,” Advances in Therapy, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 941–954, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Pammi and S. A. Abrams, “Oral lactoferrin for the prevention of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 5, Article ID CD007137, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Bhandari, M. J. Bizzarro, A. Shetty et al., “Familial and genetic susceptibility to major neonatal morbidities in preterm twins,” Pediatrics, vol. 117, no. 6, pp. 1901–1906, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Arcaroli, M. B. Fessler, and E. Abraham, “Genetic polymorphisms and sepsis,” Shock, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 300–312, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Abu-Maziad, K. Schaa, E. F. Bell et al., “Role of polymorphic variants as genetic modulators of infection in neonatal sepsis,” Pediatric Research, vol. 68, no. 4, pp. 323–329, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Özkan, N. Köksal, M. Çetinkaya et al., “Serum mannose-binding lectin (MBL) gene polymorphism and low MBL levels are associated with neonatal sepsis and pneumonia,” Journal of Perinatology, vol. 32, pp. 210–217, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Ahrens, E. Kattner, B. Köhler et al., “Mutations of genes involved in the innate immune system as predictors of sepsis in very low birth weight infants,” Pediatric Research, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 652–656, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2013 Emilie Tourneur and Cecilia Chassin. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

7929

Downloads

4511

Citations