Application of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles for the Control of Land Snail <i>Eobania vermiculata</i> and Some Plant Pathogenic Fungi

Ali, Safaa M.; Yousef, Naeima M. H.; Nafady, Nivien A.

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/218904

Journal of Nanomaterials

On this page

Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

Nanomaterials for Green Science and Environmental Applications

View this Special Issue

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2015 | Article ID 218904 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/218904

Application of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles for the Control of Land Snail Eobania vermiculata and Some Plant Pathogenic Fungi

Safaa M. Ali,¹Naeima M. H. Yousef,²and Nivien A. Nafady²

Academic Editor: Wei-Chun Chin

Received10 Sept 2014

Revised28 Jan 2015

Accepted09 Feb 2015

Published28 May 2015

Abstract

The land snail Eobania vermiculata is an important crop pest causing considerable damage in agriculture. The aim of the present work is to evaluate the possibilities of using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) to control the land snail. The AgNPs have been synthesized biologically using white radish (Raphanus sativus var. aegyptiacus). The biosynthesis was regularly monitored by UV-Vis spectroscopy. X-ray diffraction spectra revealed peaks of crystalline nature of AgNPs and the transmission electron micrographs further confirmed the size of the synthesized nanoparticles ranging from 6 to 38 nm. The exposure of the snails and soil matrix to AgNPs in a laboratory experiment reduced the activity and the viability of the land snail (20% of AgNPs treated snails died) as well as the frequency of fungal population in the surrounding soil. Moreover histology and ultrastructure alterations have been found in both kidney and the digestive gland of AgNPs treated land snails. The synergistic effect of synthesized AgNPs as antifungal was evaluated and clearly revealed that AgNPs can be effectively used against various plant pathogenic fungi. The present study results may open a new avenue to use the snail as bioindicator organism of environmental pollution.

1. Introduction

The synthesis of metallic nanoparticles is an active area of academia and, more importantly, in nanotechnology. Metallic nanoparticles have drawn a lot of attention due to their unusual physical and chemical properties, which largely differ from their bulk properties [1, 2]. The modification of properties was observed due to size effects, modifying the catalytic, electronic, and optical properties of the nanoparticles [3–5]. In the last years, biosynthesis of nanoparticles have received considerable attention due to the growing need to develop clean, nontoxic chemicals, environmentally benign solvents, and renewable materials [6, 7]. Biological processes that are based on bacteria, fungi, bioderived chemicals, and plant extracts are extensively investigated due their eco-friendly protocol and better morphological control [8–10].

Recently, plant (leaf, flower, seed, tuber, and bark) extract mediated biological process for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles has been extensively explored and compared to other bioinspired processes [11–13]. Haverkamp and Marshall, 2009 [14], have demonstrated the uptake and conversion of metal salts like AgNO₃, Na₃Ag(S₂O₃)₂, and Ag(NH₃)₂NO₃ to metal silver nanoparticles when treated with Brassica juncea. Present research has prompted further exploration in the use of plant extracts for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles from white radish extract.

Radish (family Brassicaceae) is widely grown all over the world and commonly seen as a small-rooted, short-season vegetable [15]. Different parts of radish including roots, seeds, and leaves are used for medicinal purposes [16].

Land snails are considered as crop pest which cause damage to agricultural crops or decrease their quality and also may transmit parasites to humans, animals, and plants [17]. The nanotechnology-based pesticides differ from the other synthetic pesticide in surface character and size. Nanomaterials could be useful in biological researches and applications due to their size which is similar to that of most biological molecules [18] so they can diffuse through cell membranes [19]. Nanomaterials have a toxic effect on gastropods [20]. El-Hommossany and El-Sherbibni, 2011 [21], used nanomaterials to control the freshwater snail Biomphalaria alexandrina by reducing its fertility. Jo et al., 2013 [22], used silver nanoparticles as a safe and eco-friendly pesticide. The digestive gland is the main organ for detoxification, nutrient absorption, and metabolism and heavy metals cause alteration of its tissue [23, 24]. Also, kidney of mollusca plays a vital role in metal detoxification and reabsorption [25, 26].

Synthetic chemical fungicides are widely used in conventional agriculture to control plant diseases. Environmental hazards caused by excessive use of pesticides pose health problems as modern society is becoming more health-conscious [27]. Therefore, scientists in the agricultural field are searching for alternative eco-friendly and less capital intensive approaches to control plant diseases. As an alternative to chemically manufactured pesticides, use of silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents has become more common as technological advances make their production more economical [28]. So, the objective of this study was to evaluate the possibilities of using biosynthesized silver nanoparticles to control the land snail and plant pathogenic fungi.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Biological Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles

Fresh leaves (5 grams) of white radish (Raphanus sativus var. aegyptiacus) were washed and boiled in 100 mL distilled water for 5 min. Further, the extract was filtered with Whatman number 1 filter paper and stored at 4°C for further experiments [29]. The AR grade silver nitrate (AgNO₃) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemicals. Aqueous solution of AgNO₃ (1 mM) was added dropwise into 50 mL of plant leaf extract. The mixture was incubated for 18 hours at room temperature. Control without the AgNO₃ was also kept at the same conditions.

2.2. Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles

The synthesized silver nanoparticles were characterized by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Concentration of silver in the solutions was assayed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS).

2.3. Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-Vis)

The bioreduction of silver nitrate solution and formation of silver nanoparticles by white radish leaf extract were scanned in the 300–900 nm wavelength rang using a double beam spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer lambda 750 spectrophotometer) [30]. A strong absorption of electromagnetic waves was exhibited by metal nanoparticles in the visible range due to the surface plasmon resonance. The stability of stored biologically synthesized AgNPs was also performed by UV-Vis spectral analysis.

2.4. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

The silver nanoparticles formed by the white radish leaf extract were prepared by placing a drop of synthesized AgNPs on a negative carbon coated copper grids and dried in air. The shape and size of the AgNPs were analyzed and TEM micrographs of the sample were taken using the JEOL TEM 100 CXII (Electron Microscope Unit, Assiut University, Egypt).

2.5. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

The formation of silver nanoparticles was checked by X-ray diffraction technique using an X-ray diffractometer (Shimadzu XD-3A).

2.6. Snail Experiments

The land snails (Eobania vermiculata) were collected from the Assiut University Farm. The snails were acclimatized for several weeks under laboratory conditions (25–28°C with a 12 h light : 12 h darkness). Snails fed on lettuce and were kept in plastic containers full with soil. Two groups of ten snails were used for the main experiment. One group was used as a control (untreated snails). Snails of the second group and their food were exposed with an AgNPs solution (30 ppm) for five successive days. Every day snails were examined and died animals were eliminated. At day 5, after four hours of treatment, five snails of each group were dissected. The soil under the snails was collected and examined for the mycological diversity.

2.7. Histological Studies

To detect the histological and structural alteration in AgNPs treated snails relative to the untreated snails, digestive glands and kidneys were taken from both groups and fixed in kahle’s solution. Paraffin sections (6-7 microns) were prepared and slides were stained with haematoxylin and eosin and examined with light microscope. The other was stained with periodic acid Schiff (PAS). Sections were oxidized in 1% periodic acid for 5 minutes, washed in running tap water for 3 minutes, and then stained in Schiff reagent for 15 minutes. Sections were washed for 10 minutes in running tap water, dehydrated, and then mounted according to Pearse, 1972 [31].

2.8. Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy

Tissues were fixed in 2% glutaraldehyde, postfixed in osmium tetroxide, and dehydrated in an ascending ethanol. The samples embedded in Epoin 812 according to protocol of the Electron Microscope Unit, Assiut University. Ultrathin sections (60–90 nm) were cut with an ultramicrotome (Reichert Ultracut s), contrasted with uranyl acetate and lead citrate, and examined with a transmission electron microscope (JEOL TEM 100 CXII) at 80 Kv and photographed.

2.9. Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Spectra

To detect the element composition and the existence of AgNPs in the complex tissues of both digestive gland and kidney, JEOL JSM-5400 L.V. scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with a Tractor Northern 5200 energy dispersive (EDX) analysis system was used. Thin film of the sample was prepared on a holder and then allowed to dry by putting it under a mercury lamp.

2.10. Isolation and Identification of Soil Fungi

The fungal community structure of control and treated soil under the snails were examined by the serial dilution method on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. After 7 days of incubation at 25°C, the colony forming units were counted and expressed as CFU/g of soil. All the fungal isolates were morphologically identified.

2.11. Assessment of Antifungal Assay In Vitro

Four pathogenic fungi were isolated and identified as Fusarium graminearum (cause head blight of wheat), Fusarium oxysporum (cause tomato wilt), Fusarium solani (cause potato rot), and Penicillium expansum (cause apple rot). Antifungal activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized by white radish was performed by the agar dilution method. The agar medium was supplemented with two concentrations of biogenic AgNPs (15 & 30 ppm). A disc (1.5 cm) of mycelial growth of the tested fungi, taken from the edge of 6-day-old fungal culture, was placed in the center of each plate. The plates with the inoculums were then incubated at 25°C. The efficacy of AgNPs treatment was evaluated after 8 days by measuring the radial growth of fungal colonies [32]:“where is the radial growth of fungal hyphae on the control plate and is the radial growth of fungal hyphae on the plate supplements with AgNPs”

2.12. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed by SPSS software. Paired-sample -tests have been used to determine if there are significant differences between treated and untreated snails. Obtained values of were considered significant.

3. Results and Discussion

There are several physical and chemical methods for synthesis of metallic nanoparticles [33]. However, development of simple and eco-friendly biological systems would help in the synthesis and application of metallic nanoparticles. The feature of using plants for the synthesis of silver nanoparticle is that they are easily available and safe to handle and possess a broad variability of metabolites that may help in reduction. The leaves extract of white radish (Raphanus sativus var. aegyptiacus) was found to be suitable plant source for the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The plant extract was incubated with silver ion (1 mg). Rapid appearance of a yellowish-brown colour in the reaction mixture suggested the formation of colloidal silver nanoparticles [34]. The synthesis process of silver nanoparticles was quite fast and formed within 10 minutes of silver ion. The colour noted by visual observation increased in intensity giving brown colour after 24 h of incubation. This increase in intensity could be due to the formation of more nanoparticles.

The UV-Visible absorption spectra of the aqueous component of radish leaves extract were measured in the range 300–900 nm, using a double beam UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Figure 1 shows a strong broad absorption band located between 405 and 430 nm for silver nanoparticles prepared by radish leaves extract. The silver nanoparticles band remaining around 420 nm indicates that the particles were well dispersed without aggregation. This beak, assigned to a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) typical of silver nanoparticles, is well-documented for various metal nanoparticles with sizes from 2 to 100 nm [35, 36]. Figure 2 shows TEM micrograph of silver nanoparticles. TEM analysis is performed to examine the size and shape of synthesized AgNPs. There is a variation in particle sizes from 6 to 38 nm with an average size approximately 21 nm. Most particles are smaller than 15 nm. TEM micrograph clearly reveals that these particles were separated and are not aggregated. Most synthesized AgNPs were spherical.

The XRD pattern of silver nanoparticles powder is shown in Figure 3. The XRD analysis confirmed the presence of Ag nanocrystals and no extra diffraction peaks of oxidation or other crystalline phases present, indicating that the pure silver nanoparticles are crystalline in nature. The XRD pattern shows four diffraction peaks at values equal to 38.02°, 46.12°, 64.6°, and 77.26° due to reflection from the crystallographic (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes of face-centered cubic silver, respectively. The obtained data was matched with the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS files number 03-0921).

3.1. Snail Experiment

After characterization of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using leaf extract of white radish (Raphanus sativus var. aegyptiacus), the effect of AgNPs on land snails was studied. The activity of treated snails decreased and two out of ten snails died. Gastropods have the ability to accumulate metals in their tissues [37] especially the digestive gland and the Kidney [38]. So they are used as target organs to study the response of their tissues to metals absorbed [39, 40].

The digestive gland of molluscs is the organ responsible for metabolism, absorption, and detoxification [38]. So, the digestive gland was used in this study to illustrate the effect of AgNPs. The hazard effect of NPs is due to their high reactivity, large surface area, and small size [39].

3.1.1. Digestive Gland

(1) Light Microscopy

(a) Untreated Snails (Control Group). Examination of sections of untreated snails showed that the digestive gland consists of many tubules. Each tubule is lined by four types of cells laying on a basement membrane. These cells are digestive cell (the most common cell type), calcium cell, excretory cell, and thin cell (sometimes could not be distinguished). In such tubules the different cell types are arranged around a narrow lumen (Figure 4(a)). The same results were obtained when studying the digestive gland of Eobania vermiculata and Monacha cartusiana [41, 42].

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 4

(a–d) Light micrographs: (a) the digestive gland showing a digestive tubule lined with four types of cells: digestive cell (d.c.), calcium cell (c.c.), excretory cell (ex.c.), and thin cell (t.c.). Narrow lumen (l). (b) The digestive gland of active treated snails showing presence of cellular blebs (arrows) with wildness of the lumen of the digestive tubules. (c) The digestive gland of inactive treated snails showing increases of the number of the excretory cells (ex.c.). (d) The digestive gland of inactive treated snails showing hemocytic infiltration (h) and vacuolation of the epithelial cells (v) (scale bar = 20 μm).

(b) Treated Active Snails Group. In treated active snails, the size and the lumen of many digestive tubules increased and the cells lining the tubules are irregularly arranged. The apical part of some cells separated to form blebs which are signs of cell death (Figure 4(b)) [43].

(c) Treated Inactive Snails. The feeding capacity of these snails decreased. The snails lose their activity and stay in the bottom of the container. The excretory cells (ex.c.) increased in number (Figure 4(c)). Some cells changed in their morphology. Hemocytes infiltration was detected. Many of the epithelial cells became vacuolated (Figure 4(d)).

An increase in the calcium cells number, swelling, and abnormal apices of the digestive cells in Marisa cornuarietis treated with copper and lithium was reported [37]. Also, the vacuolization in the digestive cells was recorded by Ünlü et al., 2005 [44], in the study of the effect of Thiodan on Lymnaea stagnalis.

In the study of the effect of Pt (platinum) on the tissues of the digestive gland of Marisa cornuarietis many alterations were recorded such as the irregular shape of cells (cells became flattened) dilatation of the intertubular spaces, enlarged tubule lumen, destruction of tubules, necrosis of digestive, and basophilic cells and vacuoles increased in number [45].

(2) Electron Microscopy. Transmission electron microscopy of the digestive gland of inactive treated snails showed a decrease in the size of calcium cells in comparison with the untreated snails (Figures 5(a) and 5(b)). Also, the size and number of calcium granules decreased in the inactive treated snails (Figure 5(b)). The structure of the mitochondria of the digestive cells appeared small and spherical of moderate electron density (Figure 6(a)), while in the inactive treated snails become vacuolated with the presence of small electron dense particles in the cytoplasm and homogenous light electron dense granules with variable size (g) (Figure 6(b)). Excretory cells had large vacuoles that occupied most of the cell (Figure 6(a)). The presence of altered compartments in the digestive gland of Marisa cornuarietis treated with copper and lithium was reported [45].

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

In the present study the nucleus of the cell situated peripherally and is surrounded by small amounts of cytoplasm containing cell organelles and the nuclear chromatin condensed against the nuclear envelope (Figure 7). These results are signs of cell death [43]. The damage of the digestive gland may alter its functions of absorption, digestion, excretion, and secretion.

3.1.2. Kidney

(1) Light Microscopy

(a) Untreated Snails (Control Group). Light microscopic study of untreated kidney showed that the epithelial cells have central nuclei. Some epithelial cells contain large apical vacuole and their cytoplasm faintly was stained with Periodic acid-Schiff stain (PAS); the other cells with no vacuoles and their cytoplasm and granules are deeply stained with PAS (Figures 8(a) and 8(b)). The two types of epithelial cells of molluscan kidney have a great role in accumulation of metals, excretion and may have the ability of reabsorption [26].

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 8

(a–d) Light micrographs: (a) kidney of untreated snail showing (I) epithelial cells with large apical vacuole, (II) cells with no vacuoles, and central nuclei (n). (b) Kidney of untreated snail showing (I) cells with faint PAS staining, (II) cells with deeply stained cytoplasm, and granules. (c) Kidney of treated snail showing pyknotic peripheral nuclei (arrows). (d) Kidney of treated snail showing (I) cells with greatly decreased number of cells, (II) cells with deeply stained cytoplasm, and granules increased in number (scale bar = 20 μm).

(b) Treated Inactive Snails. Many pyknotic peripheral nuclei were detected (Figure 8(c)). Most of the epithelial cells of the kidney of treated snails contain large vacuole and the cytoplasm was faintly stained with PAS (Figure 8(d)). The presence of granules that stained with PAS in the kidney cells also detected in Mya arenaria that collected from polluted sediments [46].

(2) Electron Microscopy. In the untreated kidney the organelles in the epithelial cells present mostly in the lower portion of the cell where the situation of the nucleus is in the upper portion (Figure 9(a)). While the epithelial cells of inactive treated snails contain a spherical nucleus and marked vacuolization of cytoplasm with marked decreases of the cell organelles (Figure 9(b)).

(a)

(b)

The alteration in the structure of the kidney was also reported in the study that made evaluating the effects of the sublethal exposure to cadmium on the kidney of the Littorina littorea [40]. Vacuolization of the epithelial cells detected and aggregation of organelles may be due to alteration in the excretory activity due to exposure to NPs.

3.2. The EDX Analysis

The EDX analysis (energy dispersive X-ray analysis) is an analytical method for complex samples; it is very useful tool to identify the existence of AgNPs. It was performed and represented in Figures 10 and 11 to investigate the elemental composition of the sample. The EDX analysis exhibits various intense peaks associated with Ag atoms peaks, Na, Mg, Al, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Fe, Cu, and Zn. The accumulation of Ag was detected only in treated kidney and digestive gland. The concentration of K in the digestive gland significantly increased (), the concentration of Ca in the kidney decreased (), and the concentration of Fe in the kidney increased ().

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

The result obtained from the elemental spectra demonstrated the accumulation of Ag in both digestive gland and kidney tissues. It also revealed an alteration in the element composition of these organs which mean alteration in their function [47].

3.3. Soil Fungi

The results of our present investigation depict biologically synthesized AgNPs induced decrease in frequency of fungal population in treated soil. Data in Table 1 revealed that 13 species belonging to 8 genera were isolated from untreated soil under the snails, whereas 10 species belonging to 7 genera were isolated from soil treated with AgNPs. The total counts of soil fungi were 105.7 × 10³ CFU per g dry soil, of which untreated soil was the richest in the fungal population giving rise to 66.7 × 10³ CFU/g dry soil. Remarkably, the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Trichoderma were the most common genera. Complete inhibition of Aspergillus fumigatus, Cochliobolus specifier, and Fusarium solani was noted with treated soil, while comprising 4.8%, 3.4%, and 1.2% of total fungi isolated from untreated soil.

In the present study the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles showed excellent fungicide and that the green metal silver nanoparticles could be efficacy control pathogenic soil fungi. Fungicides have broad spectrum antimicrobial activity, but it is reasonable to state that the smaller particles having the larger surface area available for interaction will give more fungicidal effect than the larger particles. It has been suggested that the toxicity of AgNPs is primarily due to the free silver ions released by the NPs [48]. While antimicrobial properties of ionic silver have long been known, the complexities encountered in various environments combined with the unique properties and behaviors of AgNPs (and nanoparticles in general) complicate estimations of the fate of released AgNPs and their organismal interactions [49, 50].

3.4. Antifungal Assay In Vitro

The inhibitory effect of biologically synthesized AgNPs of different concentrations (15 and 30 ppm) was analyzed in PDA (Figure 12). All tested pathogenic fungi were inhibited to various extents by AgNPs. The lowest level of inhibition was observed against Fusarium oxysporum on PDA treated with a 15 ppm concentration of AgNPs, while the highest level of inhibition was observed against Fusarium solani treated with a 30 ppm concentration of AgNPs (91%). The results clearly demonstrated that biologically synthesized AgNPs are hopeful antifungal agents against the plant pathogenic fungi. The use of silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents has become more common as technological advances make their production more economical.

One of the potential applications in which AgNPs can be utilized is in management of plant diseases. Since AgNPs display multiple modes of inhibitory action to microorganisms [51], they may be used for controlling various plant pathogens in a relatively safe way compared to synthetic fungicides [51]. The antifungal mechanism of AgNPs may be due to the fact that the formation of free radicles produced from the nanoparticles could disturb the membrane lipids and then finally spoil the membrane functions [52, 53]. Stoimenov et al. [54] and Sondi and Salopek-Sondi [55] have depicted a new finding that the membrane could be deteriorated by the formation of pits on the surface of the cell wall membrane of microorganisms. The formation of pits on the membrane leads to increase in the permeability and irregular transport that result in the death of the cells. So, the green-synthesized silver nanoparticle is a good source, which is easily produced and extensively useful in agricultural applications.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to acknowledge Professor Allam Nafady (Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Manager of Electronic Microscope Unit) for kind help in analyzing the data and reading the paper.

References

J. M. Köhler, L. Abahmane, J. Wagner, J. Albert, and G. Mayer, “Preparation of metal nanoparticles with varied composition for catalytical applications in microreactors,” Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 63, no. 20, pp. 5048–5055, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Perelaer, A. W. M. de Laat, C. E. Hendriks, and U. S. Schubert, “Inkjet-printed silver tracks: low temperature curing and thermal stability investigation,” Journal of Materials Chemistry, vol. 18, no. 27, pp. 3209–3215, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. M. Bronstein, D. M. Chernyshov, I. O. Volkov et al., “Structure and properties of bimetallic colloids formed in polystyrene-block-poly-4-vinylpyridine micelles: catalytic behavior in selective hydrogenation of dehydrolinalool,” Journal of Catalysis, vol. 196, no. 2, pp. 302–314, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. G. Chushak and L. S. Bartell, “Freezing of Ni-Al bimetallic nanoclusters in computer simulations,” Journal of Physical Chemistry B, vol. 107, no. 16, pp. 3747–3751, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Tomas, “Mechanics of nanoparticle adhesion—a continuum approach,” in Particles on Surfaces: Detection, Adhesion and Removal, vol. 8, pp. 1–47, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Gericke and A. Pinches, “Microbial production of gold nanoparticles,” Gold Bulletin, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 22–28, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
A. T. Harris and R. Bali, “On the formation and extent of uptake of silver nanoparticles by live plants,” Journal of Nanoparticle Research, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 691–695, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Sastry, A. Ahmad, M. Islam Khan, and R. Kumar, “Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles using fungi and actinomycete,” Current Science, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 162–170, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
K. B. Narayanan and N. Sakthivel, “Biological synthesis of metal nanoparticles by microbes,” Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 156, no. 1-2, pp. 1–13, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Kaviya, J. Santhanalakshmi, B. Viswanathan, J. Muthumary, and K. Srinivasan, “Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using citrus sinensis peel extract and its antibacterial activity,” Spectrochimica Acta, Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, vol. 79, no. 3, pp. 594–598, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Philip, “Green synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles using Hibiscus rosa sinensis,” Physica E: Low-Dimensional Systems and Nanostructures, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 1417–1424, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Kumar, S. C. Yadav, and S. K. Yadav, “Syzygium cumini leaf and seed extract mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their characterization,” Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, vol. 85, no. 10, pp. 1301–1309, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Christensen, S. Vivekanandhan, M. Misra, and A. K. Mohanty, “Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Murraya koenigii (curry leaf): an investigation on the effect of broth concentration in reduction mechanism and particle size,” Advanced Materials Letters, vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 429–434, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. G. Haverkamp and A. T. Marshall, “The mechanism of metal nanoparticle formation in plants: limits on accumulation,” Journal of Nanoparticle Research, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 1453–1463, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. S. Curtis, “The noble radish: past, present and future,” Trends in Plant Science, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 305–307, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. D. Kapoor, Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 2000.
R. N. Borkakati, R. Gogoi, and B. K. Borah, “Snail: from present perspective to the history of Assam,” Asian Agri-History, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 227–234, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. A. Gherbawy, I. M. Shalaby, M. S. A. El-Sadek, H. M. Elhariry, and B. A. Abdelilah, “The anti-fasciolasis properties of silver nanoparticles produced by Trichoderma harzianum and their improvement of the anti-fasciolasis drug Triclabendazole,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 21887–21898, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. N. Moore, “Do nanoparticles present ecotoxicological risks for the health of the aquatic environment?” Environment International, vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 967–976, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Ali, S. Alarifi, S. Kumar, M. Ahamed, and M. A. Siddiqui, “Oxidative stress and genotoxic effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles in freshwater snail Lymnaea luteola L,” Aquatic Toxicology, vol. 124-125, pp. 83–90, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. El-Hommossany and S. A. El-Sherbibni, “Impact of the photosensitizers hematoporphyrin coated gold nanoparticles on Biomphalaria alexandrina snails,” International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 54–60, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y.-K. Jo, J. L. Starr, and Y. Deng, “Use of silver nanoparticles for nematode control on the Bermuda grass putting green,” TERO, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 22–24, 2013.
View at: Google Scholar
R. Dallinger and W. Wieser, “Patterns of accumulation, distribution and liberation of Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb in different organs of the land snail Helix pomatia L.,” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C, vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 117–124, 1984.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Tanhan, P. Sretarugsa, P. Pokethitiyook, M. Kruatrachue, and E. S. Upatham, “Histopathological alterations in the edible snail, Babylonia areolata (spotted babylon), in acute and subchronic cadmium poisoning,” Environmental Toxicology, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 142–149, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. B. Andrews, “Excretory systems of Molluscs,” in The Mollusc, E. R. Trueman and M. R. Clarke, Eds., vol. 11, pp. 381–448, Academic Press, New York, NY, USA, 1988.
View at: Google Scholar
P. D. Reynolds, “Fine structure of the kidney and characterization of secretory products in Dentalium rectius (Mollusca, Scaphopoda),” Zoomorphology, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 53–62, 1990.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. W. Kim, K. S. Kim, K. Lamsal et al., “An in vitro study of the antifungal effect of silver nanoparticles on oak wilt pathogen Raffaelea sp.,” Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 19, no. 8, pp. 760–764, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. K. Jo, B. H. Kim, and G. Jung, “Antifungal activity of silver ions and nanoparticles on phytopathogenic fungi,” Plant Disease, vol. 93, no. 10, pp. 1037–1043, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. D. Dwivedi and K. Gopal, “Biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles using Chenopodium album leaf extract,” Colloids and Surfaces A, vol. 369, no. 1–3, pp. 27–33, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Yousef and N. Nafady, “Combining of biological silver nanoparticles with antiseptic agent and their antimicrobial activity,” International Journal of Pure & Applied Bioscience, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 39–47, 2014.
View at: Google Scholar
A. G. E. Pearse, Histochemistry Theoretical and Applied, A.G. Church, London, UK, 3rd edition, 1972.
S. W. Kim, J. H. Jung, K. Lamsal, Y. S. Kim, J. S. Min, and Y. S. Lee, “Antifungal effects of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against various plant pathogenic fungi,” Mycobiology, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 53–58, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. S. Edelstein and R. C. Cammarata, Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties and Applications, IOP Publication, Philadelphia, Pa, USA, 1996.
A. R. Shahverdi, S. Minaeian, H. R. Shahverdi, H. Jamalifar, and A.-A. Nohi, “Rapid synthesis of silver nanoparticles using culture supernatants of Enterobacteria: a novel biological approach,” Process Biochemistry, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 919–923, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Sastry, K. S. Mayya, and K. Bandyopadhyay, “pH dependent changes in the optical properties of carboxylic acid derivatized silver colloidal particles,” Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, vol. 127, pp. 221–228, 1997.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Sastry, V. Patil, and S. R. Sainkar, “Electrostatically controlled diffusion of carboxylic acid derivatized silver colloidal particles in thermally evaporated fatty amine films,” Journal of Physical Chemistry B, vol. 102, no. 8, pp. 1404–1410, 1998.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Osterauer, H.-R. Köhler, and R. Triebskorn, “Histopathological alterations and induction of hsp70 in ramshorn snail (Marisa cornuarietis) and zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos after exposure to PtCl2,” Aquatic Toxicology, vol. 99, no. 1, pp. 100–107, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Henery, E. Boucaud-Camou, and Y. Lefort, “Functional micro-anatomy of the digestive gland of the scallop Pecten maximus (L.),” Aquatic Living Resources, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 191–202, 1991.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Li, A. Turner, and M. T. Brown, “Accumulation of aqueous and nanoparticulate silver by the marine gastropod Littorina littorea,” Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, vol. 224, no. 1, article 1354, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. Marigómez, M. P. Cajaraville, E. Angulo, and J. Moya, “Ultrastructural alterations in the renal epithelium of cadmium-treated Littorina littorea (L.),” Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 863–871, 1990.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. S. Hamed, N. E. Abdelmeguied, A. E. Essaway, M. A. Radwan, and A. E. Hegazy, “Histological and ultrastructural changes induced by two carbamate molluscicides on the digestive gland of Eobania vermiculata,” Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 1017–1037, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. M. Sharaf, “Histochemical changes of carbohydrate and protein contents in the digestive gland cells of the land snail Monacha cartusiana following starvation,” Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 51–55, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. L. Fink and B. T. Cookson, “Apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necrosis: mechanistic description of dead and dying eukaryotic cells,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 73, no. 4, pp. 1907–1916, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Ünlü, E. I. Cengiz, M. Z. Yildirim, B. Otludil, and Ö. Ünver, “Histopathological effects in tissues of snail Lymnaea stagnalis (Gastropoda, Pulmonata) exposed to sublethal concentration of Thiodan and recovery after exposure,” Journal of Applied Toxicology, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 459–463, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Sawasdee, H.-R. Köhler, and R. Triebskorn, “Histopathological effects of copper and lithium in the ramshorn snail, Marisa cornuarietis (Gastropoda, Prosobranchia),” Chemosphere, vol. 85, no. 6, pp. 1033–1039, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. R. Seiler and M. P. Morse, “Kidney and hemocytes of Mya arenaria (Bivalvia): normal and pollution-related ultrastructural morphologies,” Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 201–214, 1988.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. García-Alonso, F. R. Khan, S. K. Misra et al., “Cellular internalization of silver nanoparticles in gut epithelia of the estuarine polychaete Nereis diversicolor,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 4630–4636, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. Navarro, A. Baun, R. Behra et al., “Environmental behavior and ecotoxicity of engineered nanoparticles to algae, plants, and fungi,” Ecotoxicology, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 372–386, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. S. Wigginton, A. de Titta, F. Piccapietra et al., “Binding of silver nanoparticles to bacterial proteins depends on surface modifications and inhibits enzymatic activity,” Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 2163–2168, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. L. Clement and P. S. Jarrett, “Antibacterial silver,” Metal-Based Drugs, vol. 1, pp. 467–482, 1994.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. W. Kim, K. S. Kim, K. Lamsal et al., “An in vitro study of the antifungal effect of silver nanoparticles on oak wilt pathogen Raffaelea sp.,” Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 19, no. 8, pp. 760–764, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Danilczuk, A. Lund, J. Sadlo, H. Yamada, and J. Michalik, “Conduction electron spin resonance of small silver particles,” Spectrochimica Acta—Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 189–191, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. S. Kim, E. Kuk, K. N. Yu et al., “Antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles,” Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 95–101, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. K. Stoimenov, R. L. Klinger, G. L. Marchin, and K. J. Klabunde, “Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents,” Langmuir, vol. 18, no. 17, pp. 6679–6686, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. Sondi and B. Salopek-Sondi, “Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent: a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 275, no. 1, pp. 177–182, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2015 Safaa M. Ali et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

5149

Downloads

2554

Citations