Modulation of Metabolic Detoxification Pathways Using Foods and Food-Derived Components: A Scientific Review with Clinical Application

Table 7

(a) In vivo example nutrient inducers of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). (b) In vivo example nutrient inhibitors of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). (c) Selected dietary sources of nutrients for glutathione support ([111] unless otherwise noted).

(a)

Enzyme	Food, beverage, or bioactive compounds; Food sources in italics	Type of study	Dosages used and references
	Cruciferous vegetables	Clinical, observational	Approximately 5 and 10 servings/d of cruciferous vegetables including frozen broccoli, cauliflower, fresh cabbage (red and green), and fresh radish sprouts [114]; >31.2 g/d cruciferous vegetables [115]; 4.5 cups of cruciferous vegetables/d, including 0.5 cups of radish sprouts, 1 cup of frozen cauliflower, 2 cups of frozen broccoli, and 1 cup of fresh cabbage [116]; 300 g/d cooked Brussels sprouts [117]
	Allium vegetables	Clinical	3 tbsp fresh chives, 1.33 cups of fresh leeks, 1 tsp garlic, and 0.5 cups of fresh onion [116]
	Resveratrol; Grapes, wine, peanuts, soy, and itadori tea; [32]	Clinical	1 g/d resveratrol [28]: note high dose used
	Citrus	Observational, in vivo	>76 g/d citrus [115]; 20 mg limonoid mixture every 2 days [124]
	Garlic	In vivo	30 to 200 mg/kg garlic oil [36]; 80 and 200 mg/kg garlic oil 3 times weekly [70]
GSTs	Fish oil	In vivo	20.5 g/kg fish oil [36]: note high dose used
	Black soybean	In vivo	1 g/kg black soybean seed coat extract [44]
	Purple sweet potato	In vivo	100 and 200 mg/kg anthocyanin extract from purple sweet potato [118]
	Curcumin	In vivo	Diet of 2% curcumin [119]
	Green tea	In vivo	Equivalent of 4 cups/d (200 mL each) of green tea [120]
	Rooibos tea	In vivo	Rooibos tea as sole beverage; concentration 2 g tea leaves/100 mL water steeped for 30 minutes [93]
	Honeybush tea	In vivo	Honeybush tea as sole beverage; concentration 4 g tea leaves/100 mL water steeped for 30 minutes [93]
	Ellagic acid; Berries, pomegranate, grapes, walnuts, and blackcurrants [42]	In vivo	30 mg/kg/d ellagic acid [43]
	Rosemary	In vivo	20 mg/kg carnosic acid 3 times weekly; [121]
	Ghee (clarified butter)	In vivo	19.5 mg CLA (conjugated linoleic acid)/g fat [122]
	Genistein (kidney GSTs); Fermented soy (e.g., miso, tempeh) contains up to 40% bioavailable genistein versus 1% or less in other soy products [125]	In vivo	1.5 g/kg genistein [123]: note high dose used

(b)

Enzyme	Food, beverage, or bioactive compounds; Food sources in italics	Type of study	Dosages used and references
	Apiaceous vegetables	Clinical	1 tsp fresh dill weed, 0.5 cups of fresh celery, 3 tbsp. fresh parsley, 1.25 cups of grated parsnips, and 0.75 cups of frozen carrots [116]
GSTs	Quercetin; Apple, apricot, blueberries, yellow onion, kale,  and alfalfa sprouts, green beans, broccoli, black tea, and  chili powder [47, 48]	In vivo	2 g/kg quercetin [126]: note high dose used
	Genistein (liver GSTs); Fermented soy (e.g., miso, tempeh) containsup to 40% bioavailable genistein, versus 1% or less in other soy products [125]	In vivo	1.5 g/kg genistein [123]: note high dose used

(c)

Vitamin B6	Turkey, pork, chicken, beef, amaranth, lentils, pistachio nuts, sunflower seeds, garlic, and prunes
Magnesium	Nuts, seeds, beans, and whole grains
Selenium	Brazil nuts, pork, turkey, lamb, chicken, and egg
Methionine	Turkey, pork, chicken, beef, egg, Brazil nuts, soybean, sesame seeds, and spirulina
Cystine	Pork, turkey, chicken, egg, soybean, spirulina, sesame seeds, and oats
Glycine	Turkey, pork, chicken, amaranth, soybean, peanuts, pumpkin seed, and beef
Folate (dietary form of folic acid)	Mung bean, adzuki bean, and other legumes, liver, sunflower seeds, quinoa, spinach, asparagus, avocados, mustard greens, and artichokes
Alpha-lipoic acid	Spinach, broccoli, tomato, peas, Brussels sprouts, and visceral meats [127, 128]
Functional foods	Turmeric, milk thistle, cruciferous vegetables, and artichoke [129–133]