(i) Promoter of angiogeneses and vasculogenesis [21] (ii) Stimulates microvascular EC proliferation [22, 23] (iii) Enhances EC migration and sprouting [24, 25] (iv) Inhibits EC apoptosis [26] (v) Increases EC permeability [27–29]
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
(i) Stimulates EC proliferation [30] (ii) Promotes microvessel tube formation [30] (iii) Promotes EC migration [30] (iv) Important promoter of blood vessel remodeling after tissue injury [31]
Angiopoieten-1 (Ang-1)
(i) Recruits pericytes to recently created blood vessels [32] (ii) Helps promote EC survival and sprout formation [32, 33] (iii) Increases the diameter of blood vessels endothelium [34]
Angiopoieten-2 (Ang-2)
(i) Antagonist of Tie-2 receptor, reduces levels of pericytes [35] (ii) Increases plasticity of newly formed blood vessels [36]
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
(i) Increases capillary wall stability [3] (ii) Stimulates the proliferation of cultured pericytes and SMCs [37] (iii) Increases DNA synthesis on capillary ECs [38] (iv) Stimulate formation of angiogenic sprouts in vitro [38]
Transforming growth factor- (TGF-)
(i) At low doses upregulates angiogenic factors and proteinases [39] (ii) At high doses, inhibits EC growth, promotes reformation of BM and stimulates SMC reformation [39] (iii) Stimulates or inhibits EC tube growth [39] (iv) Signals inflammatory mediators such as fibroblasts and monocytes [3, 40, 41] (v) Enhances integrity of vessel walls [42]
Integrin V3
(i) Binds and activates MMP2 to help break down ECM [43] (ii) Helps regulate cell attachment, spreading, and migration [44] (iii) Shows Increased activity near wound sites [45] (iv) Localized to ECs at ends of growing vessels during EC sprouting [46]
Integrin V5
(i) Interacts with VEGF to promote angiogeneses [47]
VE cadherin
(i) Thought to mediate passage of molecules across endothelium [28, 29] (ii) Regulates CD growth through contact inhibition [48] (iii) Helps prevent EC apoptosis by promoting VEGFs signal [49] (iv) Helps stabilize the branches and sprouts produced during angiogeneses [48]
Tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-)
(i) Stimulates angiogeneses in vivo [50] (ii) Stimulates EC tube formation in vitro [51]
Transforming growth factor- (TGF-)
(i) Promotes EC proliferation [50] (ii) Stimulates angiogeneses in vivo [50, 52]
Angiogenin
(i) Promotes angiogeneses in vivo [53] (ii) Assists EC adhesion and spreading in vitro [54]
Angiotropin
(i) Helps activate microvascular ECs during wound healing [38] (ii) Stimulates angiogeneses in vivo [38] (iii) Randomly induces capillary EC migration [55]
Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9)
(i) Thought to help mobilize EPCs by cleaving ECM [17]
Stromal-cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1)
(i) Helps guide EPCs to ischemic areas during angiogeneses [56]
