|
(i) Avascular stage of development |
(ii) Notch-signaling pathway |
(iii) Hedgehog-signaling pathway |
(iv) Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) |
(v) Prolyl hydroxylase (PHD)-hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF) system |
(vi) Aerobic glycolysis (“Warburg effect”) |
(vii) Oxidative and nitrosative stress |
(viii) Antioxidant defenses: glutamine metabolism, oxidative and nonoxidative pentose phosphate pathways |
(ix) Matrix metalloproteinases |
(x) IκB kinase/nuclear factor (NF)-κB (IKK/NF-κB) system |
(xi) Chemokines and adhesion molecules |
(xii) Toll-like receptors |
(xiii) Lymphangiogenesis |
(xiv) Prostaglandins and leukotrienes active metabolism |
(xv) Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) |
(xvi) Tumoral/embryonic antigens |
(xvii) Lymphoid neogenesis |
(xviii) Epithelial mesenchymal transition |
(xix) Mesenchymal stem cells/fibroblasts |
(xx) Growth factors and chemotactic factors for mesenchymal stem cells |
(a) Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) |
(b) Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) |
(c) Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) |
(d) Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) |
(xxi) Angiogenesis (“angiogenic switch”) |
(a) Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) |
(b) Angiopoietin-1 |
(c) Endothelial cell chemotaxis |
(xxii) Selective metabolic advantage |
|