Short Tools to Assess Young Children's Dietary Intake: A Systematic Review Focusing on Application to Dietary Index Research

Table 1

Characteristics of included studies (𝑛=16) and their tools (𝑛=15).

Reference, details, country	Age diet assessed, sample size (gender)	Dietary intake measurement						Outcomes (food, energy, and/or nutrient intakes)
		Type and name (if provided) of tool^a	Number of food items	Tool reference period	Self- or interviewer administered^b	Number of response categories (range)	Other tool details
Infants and toddlers (birth-24 months)
Smithers et al. (2012) [16]; UK	6 mo, 𝑛=7052 (NR)	Nonquantitative FFQ	43	“nowadays”	Self	Report “x” times a week	Items include milk drinks (including formula, BM), cereals (baby, other), rusks, bread/toast, biscuits, ready-to-eat meat/fish/vegetables/baby puddings (fruit, milk), home-cooked meat/fish/vegetables/potatoes/other vegetables/puddings (fruit, milk), raw fruit/vegetables, beverages (juice, fizzy drinks, tea, coffee, and water), sweets, crisps, and chocolate	Foods
Ystrom et al. (2009) [17]; Norway	18 mo, 𝑛=27763; (51% boys)	Nonquantitative; FFQ	36	“Current diet”; NFS	Self	Drinks, (never to ≥5 times/day); Foods, (never to ≥3 times/day)	Items include dairy products (milk, yoghurt), meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, potato, porridge, bread, rice, water, fruit juice, soda, chocolate, sweets, desserts, and cakes	Foods
Dee et al. (2008) [18]; USA	6 mo, 𝑛=1984 (NR)	Nonquantitative; FFQ	21	1 wk	Self	Report number of feedings per day or per week	Items include milk (BM, formula, cows, rice, goat, and soy), other dairy (yoghurt, cheese, ice-cream, and pudding), other soy foods (tofu, soy desserts), fruit and vegetable juice, sweet drinks, baby cereal, other cereals (breakfast cereals, biscuits, breads, rice, pasta, etc.), fruit, vegetables, French fries, meat and chicken, fish, nut-based foods, eggs, sweet foods (candy, cookies, cake, etc.), and other	Foods; nutrients
Marriott et al. (2008) [19]; UK	6 mo, 𝑛=50 (50% boys)	Quantitative FFQ	34	1 wk	Interviewer	Open responses	Items include meat, fish, vegetables, fruits, cereals, snack foods, commercial baby foods, non-milk drinks and human milk, baby formulas, and other milks. Portion size estimated using household measures	Energy nutrients
Andersen et al. (2004) [20]; Norway	24 mo, 𝑛=187 (53% boys)	Semi-quantitative FFQ	15	2 wk	Self	Not specified (never/<1/month to several times/day)	125 foods grouped into 15 questions based on the Norwegian meal pattern. Items include dairy (milk, yoghurt, and cheese), bread, potatoes, vegetables, fruit, meat, fish, cake, chocolate, and soft drinks. Other questions on dietary supplements, food habits, and child nutrition information sources. Portion size estimated using a photographic booklet with four different sized (small–large) or household units (e.g., slices, pieces, and spoons)	Foods Energy Nutrients
Andersen et al. (2003) [21]; Norway	12 mo, 𝑛=64 (58% boys)	Semiquantitative; FFQ	18	2 wk	Self	Not specified; (never/<1/month to several times/day)	140 foods grouped into 18 questions based on the Norwegian meal pattern. Items include dairy (milk, yoghurt, and cheese), baby cereal, bread, potatoes, vegetables, fruit, meat, sweetened drinks; and commercial baby foods. Other questions on dietary supplements food habits, child nutrition information sources. Portion size estimated using a photographic booklet with four different sized (small–large) or household units (e.g., slices, pieces, and spoons)	Foods; Energy; Nutrients
Lartey et al. (2000) [22]; Ghana	1–6 mo, 𝑛=216 (53% girls)	Nonquantitative FFQ	28	1 wk	NR	NR	Items include porridges, fruits, vegetables, soups, cereals, legumes, roots and tubers, animal products, cereal-legume mixtures, and cereal-animal product mixtures. Other questions on breastfeeding frequency and daily number other milk feedings	Foods
Preschoolers (2–5 years; 25–60 months)
Pabayo et al. (2012) [23]; Canada	4-5 y, 𝑛=2015 (51.5% boys)	Nonquantitative FFQ	20	Usual intake; NFS	Self	Report total number of daily or weekly servings	Items include fruits, vegetables, grain products (bread, cereal, pasta, and rice), milk and alternatives (white or flavoured, soy or rice beverages, cheese, and yogurt), and meat and alternatives (meat, poultry, fish, peanut butter, nuts, and tofu), chips, French fries, candy, chocolate, regular soft drinks, and cakes and cookies	Foods
Lanfer et al. (2011) [24]; IDEFICS consortium; European countriesc	2–9 y (2–<6y, 39.5%; 6–<10 y, 60.5%), 𝑛=258 (44% boys)	Nonquantitative; FFQ; Children’s; Eating Habits Questionnaire (CEHQ-FFQ)	43	4 wk	Self	8 (never/<1/week to ≥4/day and “I have no idea”)	Items include vegetables, potatoes, fruit, meat, fish, egg, cereals, bread, pasta, dairy (cheese, milk, and yoghurt), sweetened beverages, spreads, sauces, take-away products, salty snacks, chocolate, candy, cake, and ice-cream.; Screening instrument investigating food consumption frequency and behaviours associated with child overweight, obesity, and general health	Foods
Ebenegger et al. (2010) [25]; Switzerland	Mean 5 y, 𝑛=44 (64% boys)	Nonquantitative; FFQ	39	4 wk	Self	7 (NR)	Items include fruit, vegetables, potato, meat, fish, dairy (yoghurt, cheese, and dairy desserts), bread, cereal, sauces, sweets and snacks (e.g., chocolate), and drinks (e.g., cola). Other questions on eating habits	Foods
Kleiser et al. (2009) [26]; Germany	3–17y, (3–6 y, 7–10 y, 11–17 y), 𝑛=14105 (51% boys)	Semiquantitative; FFQ	45	Previous “few wks”; NFS	Self	10 (never to >5/day)	Items include vegetables, fruit, fish, bread/cereal, rice/pasta/potatoes, milk/dairy products, eggs, meat, fats, sweets/fatty snacks/soft drinks, and other beverages. Other questions on eating habits, supplement intake, fortified foods, light products, convenience food, and probiotic products. Portion size estimated using illustrations or standard household measures	Foods; energy; nutrients
Huybrechts et al. (2009) [27]; Belgium; Huybrechts et al. (2006) [28]; Belgium	2.5–6.5 y, 𝑛=650 validity 𝑛=124 reproducibility (NR); 2.5–6.5 y, mean 4.5 y 𝑛=1052, (50% boys)	Semiquantitative; FFQ	47	12 mo	Self	6 (every day to never or less than 1 day/month)	Items include beverages (water, juice, and milk drinks), dairy (cheese, yoghurt), meat and meat alternatives (fish, eggs), bread, pasta, rice, vegetables, fruit, potatoes (including fried), meat/fish products, chocolate, sweet snacks, salty snacks, and desserts. Other questions on food habits of some product groups.; Portion size estimated using examples of common standard measures	Foods; Energy Nutrients
Randall Simpson et al. (2008) [29]; Canada	3-4 y, 𝑛=269 validity 𝑛=140 reproducibility (94% girls)	Nonquantitative screening tool; NutriSTEP	6	Usual intake; NFS	Self	NR	Items include grains, milk, fruit, vegetables, meat, and fast food.; Other questions on nutrition risk constructs: physical growth, physical activity and sedentary behaviour, and factors affecting food intake	Foods
Romaguera et al. (2008) [30]; Argentina	2–9 y (mean boys = 5.1; girls = 5.2), 𝑛=360 (NR)	Semiquantitative FFQ	46	NR	Interviewer	NR	Items include cereals/grains, potatoes/tubers, pulses, fish, meat/meat products, eggs, milk/dairy products, fruits and vegetables, fats, added oil, sugary drinks, herbal teas, and added sugar and sweets, sweet and milky desserts. Portion sizes determined according to the observed amount usually consumed in population, measured prior to study.	Foods energy nutrients
Sullivan et al. (2006) [31]; USA	<60 mo, 𝑛=191 (59% boys)	Nonquantitative FFQ	47	2 mo	Self	9 (1, 2, and 3/day; 1, 2, 3/week; 0, 1, and 2/month)	Items include fruits, vegetables, legumes and nuts, dairy products, meat, fish, and poultry.	Foods

FFQ: food frequency questionnaire; iDEFICS: Identification and prevention of dietary- and lifestyle-induced health effects in children and infants; NFS: not further specified; mo: months; NR: not reported; USA: United States of America; UK: United Kingdom; y: years.
^aTools were defined as quantitative (quantity of food consumed was estimated using weights, measures, or food models), semiquantitative (quantity of food consumed estimated using a standard portion size, serving, or a predetermined amount and respondent asked about the number of portions consumed), or nonquantitative (quantity of food consumed not assessed).
^bSelf-administered (primary caregiver completed the dietary assessment without assistance); interviewer-administered (a trained interviewer elicited the dietary assessment information from the primary care-giver in a one-on-one setting).
^cItaly, Estonia, Cyprus, Belgium, Sweden, Germany, Hungary, and Spain.