Smoking and Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Review and Update

Table 1

Summary of the nonmodifiable and the modifiable risk factors for age-related macular degeneration*.

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Nonmodifiable risk factors

 Age

 Gender

 Iris color

 Ethnicity

 Hyperopia

 Nuclear sclerosis

 Family history of AMD

 Complement factor H polymorphism

 HTRA1 polymorphism

 CX3CR1 polymorphism

 Complement factors 2, 3 and B polymorphism

Modifiable risk factors

 Smoking

 Body mass index

 Hypertension

 Diabetes

 Cholesterol

 HDL-cholesterol

 Acute myocardial infarction

 Stroke

 Angina

 High alcohol intake

 Dietary antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids

 Chronic renal failure

 Hormone replacement therapy

 Chlamydia pneumonie infection

 Physical activity

 Sunlight exposure

 Cataract surgery

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∗AMD: age-related macular degeneration; HTRA1: HtrA serine peptidase 1; CX3CR1: CX3C chemokine receptor 1; HDL: high-density lipoprotein.