Trends in Biosensors for HPV: Identification and Diagnosis

Table 2

Optical techniques applied for HPV detection.

HPV type	Sensor platform	Sensing method	Technique	Detection limit	Detection range	Detection time	Reusability	References
HPVs 16, 18, 31, 33, 35	Aqueous solution.	Fluorescent reporter dye covalently linked to the 5′ end, and a quencher dye linked to the 3′ end.	Fluorescence PCR.	Differential detection of samples mimicking mixed infections up to 1% of the total DNA.	10^1–10^6 DNA copies.	75 minutes after DNA extraction and preparation of PCR solutions.	—	[40]
Ratios between HPVs 6/11, 16/18, and 31/33/35	In situ histological sample.	Fluorescently labeled oligonucleotides with biotin-streptavidin modification.	In situ PCR/FISH/LSCM.	1-2 DNA copies.	1 to 50 DNA copies per cell.	Overnight hybridization, no DNA extraction needed.	—	[41]
HPVs 16, 18	In situ histological sample.	Oligonucleotides labeled with digoxigenin-ll -dUTP by random priming.	FISH, automatic image cytometry.	1 DNA copy.	1–500 DNA copies per cell.	6 hours after cell culture, no DNA extraction needed.	—	[42]
HPVs 16, 18	Avidin coated (LKB, Sweden) sensor chip.	Biotinylated oligonucleotide bound to oncoproteins.	Plasmon resonance.	0.18 μM.	0.1–4 μM.	—	—	[43]
HPVs 16, 18	Nitrocellulose DNA chip.	Biotin labeled oligonucleotides sandwich of streptavidin to fluorescence dye.	PCR/chromatography fluorescence.	Qualitative.	—	30 minutes.	—	[44]
HPVs 6, 11	DNA amplification.	Oligonucleotides labeled with fluorescent probes optimized for FRET.	Real-time PCR FRET-fluorescence.	25–43 DNA copies.	1–3 × 10^7 DNA copies.	90 minutes.	—	[45]
13 different types of HPV	Nitrocellulose chip.	Fluorescently labeled oligonucleotides immobilized via biotin-avidin.	PCR amplification.	10–10^2 plasmid copies.	0–10^5 DNA copies.	30 minutes for incubation, 30 seconds for reading.	Lateral flow, 60 tests.	[46]
HPVs 16, 18	Photonic crystal on silicon.	Antibody immobilization.	Optical detection of resonant modes.	1.50 nM.	0–1.5 nM.	16 hours.	—	[47]
HPV 16	CM5 sensor chip (GE Healthcare).	Pairwise antibody footprinting.	SPR.	10 μg/mL.	50–200 μg.	30 minutes.	3 tests.	[48]
24 different types of HPV	Gold chip.	DNA-probe hybridization.	PCR/SPR.	Qualitative.	—	4 hours.	—	[49]
HPV 16	QuantumDot (75 nm)/Maghemite (46 nm).	Oligonucleotides labeled with superparamagnetic nanoparticles and QDs.	Fluorescence spectroscopy.	Qualitative.	—	1 hour.	—	[50]
HPV 16	Silica nanoparticles (75 nM).	Folate functionalization.	Fluorescence microscopy.	Qualitative.	—	15 minutes.	—	[51]
High risk selector software; (HPVs 16, 18)	Fluorescent dyed silica nanoparticles (250 nm).	Biotin-streptavidin sandwich functionalization.	Microarray DNA amplification.	150 pM.	5 pM–10 nM.	3 hours for incubation time after 13 hours of amplification and sample preparation.	—	[52]
HPVs 16, 18	Silica nanoparticles (60 nm).	Biotin-avidin sandwich with oligonucleotides fluorescently labeled.	Fluorescence spectroscopy.	13–15 pmol.	0–0.78 nM.	90 minutes.	—	[53]
HPVs 6, 11, 16, 18	Glass.	Immobilized PCR product, oligonucleotide labelled with gold, silver nanoparticles (15 nM).	Optical signal to background ratio.	0.05 pmol/μL.	0.05–0.50 pmol/μL.	—	—	[54]

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM), and fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET).