Copyright © 2008 Sadhana M. Gupta et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

1. R. T. Trifonova, J.-M. Pasicznyk, and R. N. Fichorova, “Biocompatibility of solid-dosage forms of anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 microbicides with the human cervicovaginal mucosa modeled ex vivo,” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 50, no. 12, pp. 4005–4010, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
2. R. N. Fichorova, F. Zhou, V. Ratnam, et al., “Anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 microbicide cellulose acetate 1,2-benzenedicarboxylate in a human in vitro model of vaginal inflammation,” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 323–335, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
3. M. Alfano and G. Poli, “The cytokine network in HIV infection,” Current Molecular Medicine, vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 677–689, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
4. A. Stone, “Microbicides: the UNAIDS-sponsored trial of nonoxynol-9 gel,” IPPF Medical Bulletin, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 3–4, 2000.
5. P. M. Rowe, “Nonoxynol-9 fails to protect against HIV-1,” The Lancet, vol. 349, no. 9058, p. 1074, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
6. M. K. Stafford, H. Ward, A. Flanagan, et al., “Safety study of nonoxynol-9 as a vaginal microbicide: evidence of adverse effects,” Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 327–331, 1998.
7. M. B. Dayal, J. Wheeler, C. J. Williams, and K. T. Barnhart, “Disruption of the upper female reproductive tract epithelium by nonoxynol-9,” Contraception, vol. 68, no. 4, pp. 273–279, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
8. K. V. R. Reddy, C. Aranha, S. M. Gupta, and R. D. Yedery, “Evaluation of antimicrobial peptide nisin as a safe vaginal contraceptive agent in rabbits: in vitro and in vivo studies,” Reproduction, vol. 128, no. 1, pp. 117–126, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
9. K. V. R. Reddy, R. D. Yedery, and C. Aranha, “Antimicrobial peptides: premises and promises,” International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 536–547, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
10. E. Breukink and B. de Kruijff, “The lantibiotic nisin, a special case or not?” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, vol. 1462, no. 1-2, pp. 223–234, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
11. J. N. Hansen, “Nisin and related antimicrobial peptides,” in Biotechnology of Antibiotics, W. R. Strohl, Ed., pp. 437–470, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, USA, 1997.
12. C. C. Aranha, S. M. Gupta, and K. V. R. Reddy, “Assessment of cervicovaginal cytokine levels following exposure to microbicide Nisin gel in rabbits,” Cytokine, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 63–70, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
13. F. Bäckhed and M. Hornef, “Toll-like receptor 4-mediated signaling by epithelial surfaces: necessity or threat?” Microbes and Infection, vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 951–959, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
14. S. Basu and M. J. Fenton, “Toll-like receptors: function and roles in lung disease,” American Journal of Physiology, vol. 286, no. 5, pp. L887–L892, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
15. A. Bowie and L. A. J. O'Neill, “The interleukin-1 receptor/Toll-like receptor superfamily: signal generators for pro-inflammatory interleukins and microbial products,” Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 508–514, 2000.
16. X. Du, A. Poltorak, Y. Wei, and B. Beutler, “Three novel mammalian toll-like receptors: gene structure, expression, and evolution,” European Cytokine Network, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 362–371, 2000.
17. T.-H. Chuang and R. J. Ulevitch, “Identification of hTLR10: a novel human Toll-like receptor preferentially expressed in immune cells,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, vol. 1518, no. 1-2, pp. 157–161, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
18. N. J. Gay and F. J. Keith, “Drosophila Toll and IL-1 receptor,” Nature, vol. 351, no. 6325, pp. 355–356, 1991. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
19. K. Takeda and S. Akira, “Toll-like receptors in innate immunity,” International Immunology, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1–14, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
20. S. Uematsu and S. Akira, “Toll-like receptors and innate immunity,” Journal of Molecular Medicine, vol. 84, no. 9, pp. 712–725, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
21. X.-D. Yao, S. Fernandez, M. M. Kelly, C. Kaushic, and K. L. Rosenthal, “Expression of Toll-like receptors in murine vaginal epithelium is affected by the estrous cycle and stromal cells,” Journal of Reproductive Immunology, vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 106–119, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
22. V. M. Abrahams, “Toll-like receptors in the cycling female reproductive tract and during pregnancy,” Current Women's Health Reviews, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 35–42, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
23. R. N. Fichorova, M. Bajpai, N. Chandra, et al., “Interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6 and IL-8 predict mucosal toxicity of vaginal microbicidal contraceptives,” Biology of Reproduction, vol. 71, no. 3, pp. 761–769, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
24. S. M. Gupta, C. C. Aranha, and K. V. R. Reddy, “Evaluation of developmental toxicity of microbicide Nisin in rats,” Food and Chemical Toxicology, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 598–603, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
25. C. R. Wira, J. V. Fahey, C. L. Sentman, P. A. Pioli, and L. Shen, “Innate and adaptive immunity in female genital tract: cellular responses and interactions,” Immunological Reviews, vol. 206, no. 1, pp. 306–335, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
26. S. Tabibzadeh, “Ubiquitous expression of TNF-$\alpha$/cachectin immunoreactivity in human endometrium,” American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 1–4, 1991.
27. A. R. Neurath, N. Strick, and Y.-Y. Li, “Anti-HIV-1 activity of anionic polymers: a comparative study of candidate microbicides,” BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 2, article 27, pp. 1–11, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
28. S. L. Lard-Whiteford, D. Matecka, J. J. O'Rear, I. S. Yuen, C. Litterst, and P. Reichelderfer, “Recommendations for the nonclinical development of topical microbicides for prevention of HIV transmission: an update,” Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 541–552, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
29. M. J. Keller, E. Guzman, E. Hazrati, et al., “PRO 2000 elicits a decline in genital tract immune mediators without compromising intrinsic antimicrobial activity,” AIDS, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 467–476, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
30. A. M. Cole and A. L. Cole, “Antimicrobial polypeptides are key anti-HIV-1 effector molecules of cervicovaginal host defense,” American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 27–34, 2008.
31. L. Alexopoulou, A. C. Holt, R. Medzhitov, and R. A. Flavell, “Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-$\kappa$B by Toll-like receptor 3,” Nature, vol. 413, no. 6857, pp. 732–738, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
32. A. Fazeli, C. Bruce, and D. O. Anumba, “Characterization of Toll-like receptors in the female reproductive tract in humans,” Human Reproduction, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 1372–1378, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
33. R. N. Fichorova, A. O. Cronin, E. Lien, D. J. Anderson, and R. R. Ingalls, “Response to Neisseria gonorrhoeae by cervicovaginal epithelial cells occurs in the absence of Toll-like receptor 4-mediated signaling,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 168, no. 5, pp. 2424–2432, 2002.
34. G. Köllisch, B. N. Kalali, V. Voelcker, et al., “Various members of the Toll-like receptor family contribute to the innate immune response of human epidermal keratinocytes,” Immunology, vol. 114, no. 4, pp. 531–541, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
35. F. Vernel-Pauillac and F. Merien, “Proinflammatory and immunomodulatory cytokine mRNA time course profiles in hamsters infected with a virulent variant of Leptospira interrogans,” Infection and Immunity, vol. 74, no. 7, pp. 4172–4179, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
36. J. E. Girling and M. P. Hedger, “Toll-like receptors in the gonads and reproductive tract: emerging roles in reproductive physiology and pathology,” Immunology & Cell Biology, vol. 85, no. 6, pp. 481–489, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
37. T. Ganz, “Immunology: versatile defensins,” Science, vol. 298, no. 5595, pp. 977–979, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
38. T. Ganz, “Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity,” Nature Reviews Immunology, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 710–720, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
39. N. W. J. Schröder and M. Arditi, “The role of innate immunity in the pathogenesis of asthma: evidence for the involvement of Toll-like receptor signaling,” Journal of Endotoxin Research, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 305–312, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
40. E. LeBouder, J. E. Rey-Nores, N. K. Rushmere, et al., “Soluble forms of Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 capable of modulating TLR2 signaling are present in human plasma and breast milk,” The Journal of Immunology, vol. 171, no. 12, pp. 6680–6689, 2003.