Alternatively Activated Macrophages in Types 1 and 2 Diabetes

Table 1

Helminths that reduce types 1 and 2 diabetes.

Helminths	Disease/model	Infection/antigen	Effect	Reference
Taenia  crassiceps	T1D/MLD-STZ	Inf	Increased Th2 response, AAMφ induction, and decreased TNF-α, therefore less hyperglycemia and no insulitis	[7]
Schistosoma  mansoni	T1D/NOD/MLD-STZ	Inf/Ag	Increased anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-10, IL-5, and IL-13, as a result, loop of Th2 response; Treg, eosinophil, and AAMφ generation	[8–11]
Heligmosomoides  polygyrus	T1D/NOD	Inf	Th2 response induction; IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10 augmentation; AAMφs in pancreatic and peripheral lymph nodes; inflammation and insulitis reduced; no Treg generation	[12]
Litomosoides  sigmodontis	T1D/NOD	Inf/Ag	High IL-4 and IL-5; AAMφ and Treg induction; reduced inflammation and glycemia	[13]
Trichinella  spiralis	T1D/NOD	Inf/Ag	Amplification of Th2 response; less injury in pancreas and glycemia	[14]
Nippostrongylus  brasiliensis	T2D/obese	Inf	Th2 response; recruitment of eosinophils and AAMφs; decreased obesity and insulin resistance	[15]