|
| Item | Detection timeframe | Roles | Reference |
|
| IL-1α | (i) Early 15 min, PL at 6 h AI | (i) Important alarmin that induces inflammatory response
(ii) Enhances vascular permeability
(iii) Augments lymphocyte recruitment | [7, 88, 163] |
|
| IL-1β | (i) Its production starts from 3 to 24 h, PL 12 h AI
(ii) Upregulation at 14 days | (i) Astrocytic glutamate transporter inhibitor
(ii) Vascular permeability enhancer and lymphocyte recruiter
(iii) Low concentrations:
(a) Induces adhesion molecules
(b) Increases neurotrophin expression
(c) Mediates leukocyte activation/recruitment
(iv) High concentrations activate the expression of NFκβ, AP1, ATF, COX-2, iNOS, and proinflammatory proteases in astrocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and microglia | [104, 163] |
|
| IL-6 | (i) Early production at 15 min AI and could be found up to 3–24 h AI
(ii) Detected serum levels 1 h AI, PL 24 h | (i) Activates PMN, macrophages, and microglia
(ii) Induces the following:
(a) iNOS enzyme in astrocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and microglia
(b) IL-17 production
(iii) IL1β-like effects | [118, 136, 137] |
|
| TNFα | (i) Early production at 15 min AI
(ii) Upregulated 1–3 h AI with PL at 1–3 days AI | (i) Principal promoter of Wallerian degeneration
(ii) Promotes immediate neutrophil recruitment to lesion site by the induction of adhesion molecules and IL-8 release
(iii) iNOS induction in microglia, astrocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes | [118, 136, 137, 148, 182–184] |
|
| LIF | (i) Upregulated from 3 to 24 h AI | (i) Microglia/macrophage activator
(ii) Overexpression increases macrophage/microglia proliferation and astrocytic activation | [24, 101] |
|
| IFNγ | (i) Detected from 1 to 12 h AI | (i) TCD8+ cytolytic response induction
(ii) Principal inductor of MHCI (STAT1 phosphorylation)
(iii) Promotes the following:
(a) Proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines
(b) CNS macrophage recruitment
(c) Activation of CNS resident and infiltrating APC populations
(iv) Low concentrations promote synaptic circuitry homeostasis | [118, 192] |
|
| IL-4 | (i) High levels 24 h AI, concentrations remain during 7 days and decrease 3 days AI | (i) Neuroinflammatory regulation in various pathological conditions
(ii) Confers regenerative properties to macrophages
(iii) Controls free radical production in peripheral macrophages and microglia | [166, 193–199] |
|
| IL-13 | (i) Detected 1 day AI | (i) Macrophage activation onto M2 phenotype | [166, 199] |
|
| IP-10/CXCL10 | (i) Expressed locally 30 min AI, increases at 1 h, PL at 6 h. Remains increased up to 5 days and decreases to the baseline by day 14 | (i) Recruits CD4 Th1 cells via CXCR3AR
(ii) Inhibits angiogenesis, growth, and chemotaxis of endothelial cells via the CXCR3BR | [95, 184, 200] |
|
| IL-17 | (i) Detected from 1 h AI, PL at 24 h, and barely detected up to 72 h AI | (i) Inflammation in autoimmune diseases | [201–204] |
|
| MIP-1α/CCL4 | (i) Locally produced from 30 to 60 min AI, PL 3–6 h, decreases by 1 day and remains barely detected up to 24 days AI | (i) Macrophage infiltration | [200, 205–207] |
|
| MIP-1β | (i) Detected 3–6 days AI, remains barely detected up to
(ii) 24 days AI | (i) Macrophage infiltration | [200, 205–207] |
|
| MCP1/CCL2 | (i) Detected from 1 h AI with PL at 24 h and remains low up to 24 days AI | (i) Macrophage and PMN infiltration mediator | [106, 184, 200, 205, 206] |
|
