Activation of Glycine and Extrasynaptic GABA<sub>A</sub> Receptors by Taurine on the Substantia Gelatinosa Neurons of the Trigeminal Subnucleus Caudalis

Nguyen, Thi Thanh Hoang; Bhattarai, Janardhan Prasad; Park, Soo Joung; Han, Seong Kyu

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/740581

Neural Plasticity

On this page

Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

Ion Channel Modulation in Spinal/Trigeminal Synaptic Plasticity

View this Special Issue

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2013 | Article ID 740581 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/740581

Activation of Glycine and Extrasynaptic GABA_A Receptors by Taurine on the Substantia Gelatinosa Neurons of the Trigeminal Subnucleus Caudalis

Thi Thanh Hoang Nguyen,¹Janardhan Prasad Bhattarai,¹Soo Joung Park,¹and Seong Kyu Han¹

Academic Editor: Dong-ho Youn

Received17 Sept 2013

Revised05 Nov 2013

Accepted12 Nov 2013

Published28 Nov 2013

Abstract

The substantia gelatinosa (SG) of the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis (Vc) has been known for the processing and transmission of orofacial nociceptive information. Taurine, one of the most plentiful free amino-acids in humans, has proved to be involved in pain modulation. In this study, using whole-cell patch clamp technique, we investigated the direct membrane effects of taurine and the action mechanism behind taurine-mediated responses on the SG neurons of the Vc. Taurine showed non-desensitizing and repeatable membrane depolarizations and inward currents which remained in the presence of amino-acid receptors blocking cocktail (AARBC) with tetrodotoxin, indicating that taurine acts directly on the postsynaptic SG neurons. Further, application of taurine at different doses (10 μM to 3 mM) showed a concentration dependent depolarizations and inward currents with the EC₅₀ of 84.3 μM and 723 μM, respectively. Taurine-mediated responses were partially blocked by picrotoxin (50 μM) and almost completely blocked by strychnine (2 μM), suggesting that taurine-mediated responses are via glycine receptor (GlyR) activation. In addition, taurine (1 mM) activated extrasynaptic GABA_A receptor (GABA_AR)-mediated currents. Taken together, our results indicate that taurine can be a target molecule for orofacial pain modulation through the activation of GlyRs and/or extrasynaptic GABA_ARs on the SG neurons.

1. Introduction

Taurine (2-amino-ethane sulfonic acid) is one of the most plentiful free amino-acids in humans [1, 2]. In the human body, taurine is distributed with high concentration in various tissues that are excitable and/or prone to generate free radicals in retina, white blood cells, platelets, central nervous system (CNS), heart, skeletal muscles, spleen, and liver [3]. In physiological condition, taurine is accumulated in brain cells at concentration of 5–70 mM [4, 5] and is released in high amounts under various pathological conditions such as anoxaemia or ischemia and seizure [6–8]. Since its first discovery in 1827, a number of studies have been done to find out the various physiological functions and the significance of taurine. It has been reported that taurine has various functions including bile acid production [9–12], antiarrhythmic effects [13–15], and oxidant scavenging effects [16]. In central nervous system, taurine has also been reported to modulate calcium homeostasis [17, 18], neuronal excitabilities [19, 20], and excitotoxic cell death [21, 22].

The pain transmission from the orofacial region to the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis (Vc) is responsible by the first-order neurons via small-diameter primary afferents including myelinated Aδ- and unmyelinated C-fibers [23, 24], which innervate in lamina I and in much of lamina II of the Vc [25, 26]. The lamina II called substantia gelatinosa (SG), therefore, is thought to be a key site in the processing of orofacial nociceptive information [27, 28]. The majority of neurons in the SG are local interneurons [29]. A substantial number of these interneurons contain gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine which are often colocalized in the same cell [30, 31]. As one of the main inhibitory neurotransmitters in the central nervous system, GABA and glycine have pivotal roles in the modulation of nociception [32–35].

A number of studies have shown that taurine is involved in pain modulation. For example, systemic and intrathecal administration of taurine induced the antinociceptive effects to inhibit the intensity of caudally-directed biting, scratching, and paw licking behaviors by chemical agent and by the hot-plate test at acute pain tests in mouse [36, 37]. It has been reported that dietary supplementation with taurine suppresses hyperalgesia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and autotomy behavior in genetically selected Sabra strain rats [38]. In addition, Lee et al. showed that taurine is released from neurons in the upper dorsal horn layers which are known to conduct nociceptive input [39]. These previous reports have strongly suggested that taurine can modulate nociceptive information. Similarly, Bereiter et al. reported that there was an elevation of taurine after mustard oil (a chemical irritant) injection through the skin into the temporomandibular joint region in rats [40]. However, the action mechanism of taurine on the SG neurons which are involved in orofacial pain modulation has not been fully understood. In this study, therefore, we used the whole-cell patch clamp technique to investigate the action mechanism of taurine on the SG neurons of the Vc.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Animals

All experiments on living animals were ratified by Chonbuk University Animal Welfare and Ethics Committee. Immature male and female ICR mice used in the present study were housed under 12-h light : 12-h dark cycles (lights on at 07:00 h) with access to food and water ad libitum.

2.2. Brain Slice Preparation

Brain slice preparation was similar to the work done by Park et al. [41]. Briefly, the juvenile ICR mice (5-20 postnatal days) were decapitated and their brains were excised quickly, immersed in ice-cold bicarbonate-buffered artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) with the following chemical composition (in mM): 126 NaCl, 2.5 KCl, 2.4 CaCl₂, 1.2 MgCl₂, 11 D-glucose, 1.4 NaH₂PO₄, and 25 NaHCO₃ (pH 7.3~7.4, bubbled with 95% O₂ and 5% CO₂). The trigeminal subnucleus caudalis segment was dissected, supported with a 4% agar block, and glued with cyanoacrylate to the chilled stage of a vibratome (Microm, Walldorf, Germany). Coronal slices (150 μm in thickness, obtained 1-2 mm from the obex, the most rostral part of Vc) were prepared in ice-cold ACSF using the vibratome. The slices were kept in oxygenated ACSF at room temperature for at least 1 h before electrophysiological recording.

2.3. Electrophysiological Procedures and Data Analysis

The slices were transferred into a recording chamber, completely submerged, and continuously superfused with carboxygenated ACSF at a rate of 4-5 mL/min. The slices were viewed with an upright microscope (BX51W1, Olympus, Tokyo, Japan) with Nomarski differential interference contrast optics. The SG (lamina II) was clearly identified as a translucent band, just medial to the spinal trigeminal tract and traveled along the lateral edge of the slice. The patch pipettes were pulled from thin-wall borosilicate glass-capillary tubing (PG52154-4, WPI, Sarasota, USA) on a Flaming/Brown, puller (P-97, Sutter Instruments Co., Novato, CA). The pipette solution was passed through a disposable 0.22 μm filter and contained the following composition (in mM): 140 KCl, 1 CaCl₂, 1 MgCl₂, 10 HEPES, 4 MgATP, and 10 EGTA (pH 7.3 with KOH). In this study, we used high chloride pipette solution to amplify the chloride mediated conductance. The resistance between the recording electrode filled with pipette solution and the reference electrode was 4–6 MΩ. After a gigaohm seal was formed with SG neuron, the cell membrane patch was ruptured by negative pressure, and then the whole-cell patch clamp recording was performed using an Axopatch 200B (Axon Instruments, Union City, CA). The changes in membrane potentials and membrane currents were sampled online using a Digidata 1322A interface (Axon Instruments) connected to a desktop PC. The signals were filtered (2 kHz, Bessel Filter of Axopatch 200B) before digitizing at a rate of 1 kHz. The holding current was not adjusted during the experiment and was set at 0 pA in current clamp mode. The root mean square (RMS) noises were measured in 50 ms epochs of traces lacking postsynaptic currents (PSCs), in periods of control ACSF and in the presence of strychnine and strychnine + taurine 100 μM ( epochs in each case). The mean holding current changes within the control and treated period were calculated as the mean of peak-to-peak amplitude of individual points within each period. The acquisition and subsequent analysis of the acquired data were performed using Clampex9 software (Axon Instruments, USA). The traces were plotted using Origin7 software (MicroCal Software, Northampton, USA). All recordings were made at room temperature.

2.4. Drugs

The drugs used in the present study were taurine, strychnine, gabazine, picrotoxin, bicuculline (purchased from Sigma, USA), and tetrodotoxin (TTX) (from Tocris, UK). Stocks of all drugs were made according to their solubility in DMSO and in distilled water. Stocks were diluted (usually 1,000 times) to the desired final concentrations in ACSF immediately before use and were applied by bath application (4 mL/min).

2.5. Statistics

All values were expressed as the mean ± S.E.M. A paired t-test and one way ANOVA test were used to examine the difference. Statistical significance was defined as .

3. Results

Whole cell current and voltage clamp recordings were obtained from 98 SG neurons from juvenile mice postnatal day ranging from day 5 to day 20. A series of experiments were designed to evaluate the effects of taurine on SG neurons. The mean resting membrane potential of SG neurons tested in current clamp mode was − mV ().

3.1. Taurine Induces Nondesensitizing Membrane Potential and Holding Current Changes on SG Neuron

In current and voltage clamp mode, taurine (100 μM) was applied repeatedly at 5-minute time intervals to determine if the SG neurons were desensitized by successive application. In 7 SG neurons tested in current clamp mode, taurine (100 μM) induced repeated membrane depolarizations (Figure 1(a)). When taurine was successively applied, the mean membrane potential change ( mV) by the second application was similar to that of the first application ( mV, , , Figure 1(b)). Similarly, in voltage clamp mode at holding potential of −60 mV, taurine (100 μM) induced repeated inward currents (Figure 1(c)). When taurine was successively applied, the mean inward current (− pA) by the second application was similar to that of the first application (− pA, , , Figure 1(d)). These results indicate that SG neurons are not desensitized by the successively applied taurine that induces inhibitory depolarizing potentials or inward currents, respectively, at current clamp or voltage clamp mode. The mean relative membrane depolarization and the mean relative inward current of the second application were () and (), respectively.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

3.2. Postsynaptic Action of Taurine on SG Neurons

To investigate whether taurine affects SG neuronal activities via action potential mediated presynaptic release, the effects of taurine were examined in the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX), a voltage sensitive Na⁺ channel blocker in current and voltage clamp mode. Taurine (100 μM) induced membrane depolarization and when TTX (0.5 μM) was applied, spontaneous action potentials were rapidly abolished. However, TTX did not affect the taurine-induced membrane depolarization. The mean membrane potential change ( mV, ) in the presence of TTX 0.5 μM was similar to that of taurine alone ( mV, , ). Further, in voltage clamp experiment, the taurine-mediated inward current was not blocked by TTX. The mean inward current change ( pA, ) in the presence of TTX was similar to that of taurine alone ( mV, , ) (figure not shown). These results indicate that taurine-induced responses were not mediated via any action potential dependent presynaptic action on the SG neurons.

Further, we used amino-acid receptors blocking cocktail (AARBC) (6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2, 3-dione (CNQX) 10 μM and (2R)-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (AP5) 20 μM, gabazine 3 μM along with tetrodotoxin (TTX) 0.5 μM) to find out if taurine affects SG neuronal activities directly on the postsynaptic site. As shown in Figures 2(a) and 2(c), there were no significant differences between the responses induced by taurine alone and in the presence of AARBC. The amplitude of mean membrane depolarization induced by taurine alone ( mV, ) was nearly similar to that of in the presence of AARBC ( mV, , , Figure 2(b)). Similarly, taurine-evoked mean inward currents in taurine alone and in the presence of AARBC were also almost equal ( pA and pA, resp., , , Figure 2(d)). These results put forth that taurine-mediated inward currents and depolarizations were purely postsynaptic events.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Taurine-induced membrane depolarizations and inward currents were examined at different concentrations ranging from 10 to 3,000 μM. Figures 3(a) and 3(c) show the representative traces indicating the clear concentration dependency by taurine applications. Taurine-induced membrane depolarizations and inward currents were bigger at higher concentrations. Figure 3(b) illustrates the mean membrane depolarization changes by taurine at different concentrations (10 μM: mV, 30 μM: mV, 100 μM: mV, 300 μM: mV, 1,000 μM: mV, ) with an EC₅₀ of 84.3 μM. Similarly, there was an increase of mean inward currents following the rise of concentration in voltage clamp mode as well (10 μM: pA, 30 μM: pA, 100 μM: pA, 300 μM: pA, 1,000 μM: pA, 3,000 μM: pA, ) with an EC₅₀ of 723 μM. The values of EC₅₀ were estimated by curve fitting using Origin software. This discrepancy of EC₅₀ values between voltage and current clamp may be explained due to the activation of certain voltage-sensitive ion channels in current clamp mode. These concentration dependent responses also support that taurine acts on the postsynaptic site of SG neurons directly.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

3.3. Taurine Activates Glycine Receptors on SG Neurons

It has been reported that taurine can activate GlyRs in ventromedial hypothalamic neurons [42], supraoptic magnocellular neurons [43], cultured neurons of auditory cortex [44], and anteroventral cochlear nucleus neurons [45]. To check whether taurine-induced membrane depolarizations and inward currents on the SG neurons of the Vc were mediated by GlyR activation, strychnine, a selective GlyR antagonist was used. As shown in Figures 4(a) and 4(c), taurine-induced membrane depolarization and current were almost blocked by strychnine (2 μM). The mean membrane depolarizations induced by the application of taurine in the absence and presence of strychnine were mV and mV, respectively (, Figure 4(b), ). In addition, the mean inward current induced by taurine ( pA) was eliminated by the simultaneous application with strychnine ( pA) (, Figure 4(d), ).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

3.4. Taurine-Induced Actions Were Mediated via GlyRs and Extrasynaptic GABA_A Receptors

It has been reported that taurine can activate GABA_A receptors (GABA_ARs) in various regions such as main olfactory bulb [46, 47], in the hippocampal CA1 area [48], and in anteroventral cochlear nucleus neurons [45]. As gabazine is well known to block synaptic GABA_ARs at lower concentration [49] as well as extrasynaptic GABA_ARs at higher concentration [50], taurine was applied in the presence of gabazine (3 μM).

The currents activated by taurine at 100 μM and 1,000 μM were not affected by 3 μM gabazine (Figures 5(a) and 5(c)). Figures 5(b) and 5(d) compare the changes in inward currents between taurine alone (with two different concentrations 100 μM and 1,000 μM ( pA and pA, resp.)) and taurine in the presence of gabazine 3 μM ( pA and pA, resp.). Therefore, at these concentrations, are not affected by taurine. On the other hand, to identify whether taurine can act on extrasynaptic on SG neurons, the concentration of gabazine was increased to 50 μM (Figures 5(e) and 5(f)). The taurine-induced current was inhibited by gabazine at high concentration (Figure 5(e)). Specifically, the mean inward current induced by taurine 1,000 μM ( pA) was reduced to pA in the presence of gabazine 50 μM (Figure 5(f), ). Further additional experiments in the presence of gabazine and bicuculline were conducted to figure out the activation of extrasynaptic current by 1,000 μM taurine, and as expected, bicuculline blocked the taurine-induced inward current in the presence of gabazine (Figures 5(g) and 5(h), ).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

Figure 5

Taurine-induced inward current is only sensitive to gabazine at high concentration on SG neurons. (a), (c), (e) The representative traces showing the responses to taurine (100 μM and 1,000 μM) were not affected by gabazine 3 μM but were affected by gabazine 50 μM. (b), (d), (f) Bar graphs showing no significant difference about mean inward currents between the application taurine alone and taurine in the presence of gabazine 3 μM (), but there was a considerable change in the presence of gabazine 50 μM (). (g) The representative trace showing the inhibition of taurine-induced inward current in the presence of gabazine by GABA_A broad antagonist bicuculline (20 μM). (h) The bar graph showing the mean inward current induced by taurine 1,000 μM in the presence of gabazine 3 μM and the mean remaining response after being blocked by bicuculline 20 μM (). Holding potential was −60 mV.

There are a plethora of studies suggesting that the receptor antagonist picrotoxin also blocks extrasynaptic homomeric glycine receptors at lower concentration of 50–100 μM and is used extensively to characterize the glycine receptors on neuronal populations. So, here in this study we tested taurine in the presence of picrotoxin to characterize the type GlyRs activated by taurine on SG neurons of Vc. Taurine-induced inward currents on SG neurons were blocked by picrotoxin 50 μM (Figures 6(a) and 6(c)). The mean inward currents evoked by taurine 100 μM and 1,000 μM were significantly decreased in the presence of picrotoxin (50 μM). The mean inward currents evoked by taurine 100 μM and 1,000 μM in absence and presence of picrotoxin were pA; pA and pA; and pA, respectively (Figures 6(b) and 6(d)). These results suggest that the SG neurons of Vc functionally express both heteromeric and homomeric GlyRs. Interestingly, it is very clear from Figures 6(b) and 6(d) that the inhibition of 1,000 μM taurine-mediated response by picrotoxin (50 μM) was less than that of 100 μM taurine. This result can be explained considering that there might be a possibility that at higher concentration of taurine may affect extrasynaptic . In addition, at high concentration of picrotoxin (300 μM), 1,000 μM taurine-induced currents were further decreased (Figures 6(e) and 6(f)), suggesting the activation of extrasynaptic by higher concentration of taurine.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Following this further, we also used another selective antagonist, bicuculline, which follows the same pattern as picrotoxin does, that is, blockade of homomeric GlyRs [51]. We confirmed the inhibitory effect of bicuculline on taurine and glycine-mediated responses. Figures 7(a) and 7(c) show the inhibition of bicuculline on the taurine and glycine-induced currents. The mean inward currents by taurine 100 μM in the absence and presence of bicuculline 10 μM were pA and pA (Figure 7(b)), respectively. Whereas the mean inward currents elicited by glycine (100 μM) in the absence and presence of bicuculline (10 μM) were pA and pA (Figure 7(d), ), respectively.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Further, in a quest to figure out the actual extrasynaptic glycine and GABA_A receptors mediated tonic currents by 1,000 μM taurine on SG neurons, it was applied in the presence of strychnine. Strychnine dramatically blocked the synaptic currents and induced outward shift of the holding current (Figure 8(a)). Presumably, this blockade of synaptic currents were via heteromeric GlyRs, and outward shift of holding current was induced via extrasynaptic GlyRs. Moreover in the presence of strychnine, taurine (1,000 μM) induced the inward current with increase in RMS noise. RMS noise in intact condition, in the presence of strychnine and in the presence of strychnine and taurine were pA, pA and pA, respectively (, Figure 8(b), ).

(a)

(b)

Figure 8

Taurine-mediated tonic conductance via extrasynaptic glycine and GABA receptors on SG neurons. (a) The representative trace illustrated that strychnine 2 μM mediated an outward shift of holding current by blocking glycine-mediated neurotransmission and blocked the taurine-induced synaptic currents except -mediated extrasynaptic current. (b) The bar graph showing the comparison of RMS noise in intact condition, in the presence of strychnine 2 μM and in the spontaneous application of taurine 1,000 μM and strychnine 2 μM (**). Holding potential was −60 mV.

4. Discussion

The results of this study can be summarized as follows. SG neurons were not desensitized by the application of taurine. The taurine-induced membrane depolarizations on SG neurons were mediated by postsynaptic actions. There was concentration-response relationship between taurine and SG neurons. Taurine acted as an agonist on both extrasynaptic homomeric and synaptic hetromeric GlyRs on the SG neurons. Taurine at higher concentration could affect extrasynaptic .

Taurine has been demonstrated for its ability in modulation of synaptic transmission by activating GlyRs and/orRs. However, the physiological actions of taurine which can be upon either GlyRs or GABA_ARs have been also proved to depend on the specific brain region studied [46, 47]. For example, taurine activates both GABA_ARs and GlyRs in neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, Xenopus oocytes, and the hippocampal CA1 area [43, 48, 52] and activates only GABA_ARs receptors in mitral and tufted cells from the rat main olfactory bulb [47]. In addition, this activation of taurine in some brain regions is concentration-dependent. For instance, in young rat hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, and adult rat supraopic nucleus, taurine cannot only activate GlyRs at a low concentration (≤1 mM) but can activate GABA_ARs as well at a high concentration (≥3 mM) [43, 48, 53]. On the other hand, the findings by Song et al. in 2012 have shown that in anteroventral cochlear nucleus neurons, at low (0.1 mM) and high (1 mM) concentrations, taurine can activate both GABA_ARs and GlyRs [45].

In the mammalian CNS, GlyRs are formed by a combination of five distinct transmembrane protein subunits, one β subunit and four α subunit () [54, 55]. This composition influences in two different ways of forming functional receptors: the homomeric configuration comprising five α subunits and the heteromeric configuration composed of 2α : 3β subunits [55–57]. The physiological and pharmacological properties of GlyRs are dependent on the subunit combination. Picrotoxin, a antagonist, is proved as a standard tool to discriminate between homomeric and heteromeric GlyRs [58]. At low concentration of 50–100 μM, picrotoxin selectively blocks homomeric GlyRs but not heteromeric receptors. In this study, to pharmacologically characterize the type of GlyRs present on SG neurons, taurine and glycine 100 μM were applied in the presence of picrotoxin. The result indicate that glycine- and taurine-induced inward currents were partially blocked by picrotoxin (50 μM), suggesting the presence of α homomeric GlyRs. However, this blockade was not complete and the unblocked remainder implies the activation of another GlyRs, likely αβ heteromeric GlyRs. The result in this study puts forth that taurine activates not only the synaptic hetromeric GlyRs but also the homomeric extrasynaptic GlyRs giving the tonic glycinergic inhibition on SG neurons, as established on spinal cord and hippocampal neurons [59, 60].

Another major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS is GABA which mediates its most rapid effects via the ionotropic . which are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels consisting of diverse subunits are typically composed of two α and two β subunits together with γ2 subunit [61]. The difference of subunit composition influences not only the properties and function of receptors but also their distribution within the cellular membrane [62, 63]. GABA_A receptors, containing the γ2 subunit, are preferentially located in the synapse and generate “phasic” inhibitory postsynaptic currents [64]. On the other hand, in some receptors, the δ subunit can take the place of the γ2 subunit. The existence of the δ subunit leads to receptor expression in the extrasynaptic membrane and the activation of these receptor results in the generation of “tonically” active currents [65–68]. In the present study, inward current with increased RMS noise by taurine 1,000 μM in the presence of strychnine and unaffected current in the presence of gabazine 3 μM which blocks the synaptic suggests the activation of extrasynaptic by taurine 1,000 μM. The activation of extrasynaptic GABA_ARs by taurine may have important physiological and pathophysiological effects to protect neurons from toxicity under pathological conditions [22].

Glycine and GABA are known to be inhibitory neurotransmitters. Within the SG of the spinal dorsal horn, these neurotransmitters take part in the modulation of sensory input by exerting powerful inhibitory effects on spontaneous and afferent evoked activity in second-order neurons [69]. In previous studies, - and GlyR-mediated conductance have been found to have inhibitory effects on orofacial nociceptive input [70]. Likewise taurine has also been shown to have inhibitory effect on other brain areas [71]. In this study, activation of glycine and GABA receptors by taurine on SG neurons has given a clear evidence that taurine behaves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter on the SG neurons of Vc. Because of this property, taurine symbolizes essential targets in descending pathways to orofacial pain.

The significant increase of taurine level in the brain under pathological conditions in response to electrical, chemical, and pain stimulation signals that taurine may play a role in neuroprotection [72–74]. With the physiological ability to activate the inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in SG neurons, our results indicate that the influence of taurine on SG neurons may be an important modulation which has a part in the processing of orofacial nociceptive information. Further researches need to be done to ascertain the antinociceptive role of taurine to orofacial pain.

Acknowledgment

This work was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2012R1A1A2003535).

References

M. Neuringer and J. Sturman, “Visual acuity loss in rhesus monkey infants fed a taurine-free human infant formula,” The Journal of Neuroscience Research, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 597–601, 1987.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Neuringer, H. Imaki, J. A. Sturman, R. Moretz, and H. M. Wisniewski, “Abnormal visual acuity and retinal morphology in rhesus monkeys fed a taurine-free diet during the first three postnatal months,” Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 217, pp. 125–134, 1987.
View at: Google Scholar
J. G. Jacobsen and L. H. Smith, “Biochemistry and physiology of taurine and taurine derivatives,” Physiological Reviews, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 424–511, 1968.
View at: Google Scholar
H. Benrabh, J.-M. Bourre, and J.-M. Lefauconnier, “Taurine transport at the blood-brain barrier: an in vivo brain perfusion study,” Brain Research, vol. 692, no. 1-2, pp. 57–65, 1995.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Del Olmo, M. Galarreta, J. Bustamante, R. Martín Del Río, and J. M. Solís, “Taurine-induced synaptic potentiation: role of calcium and interaction with LTP,” Neuropharmacology, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 40–54, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Saransaari and S. S. Oja, “Modulation of the ischemia-induced taurine release by adenosine receptors in the developing and adult mouse hippocampus,” Neuroscience, vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 425–430, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. W. Phillis and M. H. O'Regan, “Characterization of modes of release of amino acids in the ischemic/reperfused rat cerebral cortex,” Neurochemistry International, vol. 43, no. 4-5, pp. 461–467, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. Li, X. Zhang, X. Lu, M. Zhong, and Y. Ji, “Dynamic release of amino acid transmitters induced by valproate in PTZ-kindled epileptic rat hippocampus,” Neurochemistry International, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 263–270, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Guertin, C. C. Roy, G. Lepage et al., “Effect of taurine on total parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis,” Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 247–251, 1991.
View at: Google Scholar
P. Invernizzi, K. D. R. Setchell, A. Crosignani et al., “Differences in the metabolism and disposition of ursodeoxycholic acid and of its taurine-conjugated species in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis,” Hepatology, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 320–327, 1999.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Caglieris, E. Giannini, G. Dardano, L. Mondello, U. Valente, and R. Testa, “Tauroursodeoxycholic acid administration as adjuvant therapy in cirrhotic patients on transplantation waiting lists,” Hepato-Gastroenterology, vol. 47, no. 34, pp. 1045–1047, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Sunami, S. Tazuma, and G. Kajiyama, “Gallbladder dysfunction enhances physical density but not biochemical metastability of biliary vesicles,” Digestive Diseases and Sciences, vol. 45, no. 12, pp. 2382–2391, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Satoh and N. Sperelakis, “Review of some actions of taurine on ion channels of cardiac muscle cells and others,” General Pharmacology, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 451–463, 1998.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Niittynen, M. Nurminen, R. Korpela, and H. Vapaatalo, “Role of arginine, taurine and homocysteine in cardiovascular diseases,” Annals of Medicine, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 318–326, 1999.
View at: Google Scholar
M. J. Sole and K. N. Jeejeebhoy, “Conditioned nutritional requirements and the pathogenesis and treatment of myocardial failure,” Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 417–424, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Cunningham, K. F. Tipton, and H. B. F. Dixon, “Conversion of taurine into N-chlorotaurine (taurine chloramine) and sulphoacetaldehyde in response to oxidative stress,” Biochemical Journal, vol. 330, no. 2, pp. 939–945, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
H. Pasantes-Morales and A. Gamboa, “Effect of taurine on ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ accumulation in rat brain synaptosomes,” Journal of Neurochemistry, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 244–246, 1980.
View at: Google Scholar
W. Q. Chen, H. Jin, M. Nguyen et al., “Role of taurine in regulation of intracellular calcium level and neuroprotective function in cultured neurons,” The Journal of Neuroscience Research, vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 612–619, 2001.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Wang, C. Xiao, and J. H. Ye, “Taurine activates excitatory non-synaptic glycine receptors on dopamine neurones in ventral tegmental area of young rats,” Journal of Physiology, vol. 565, no. 2, pp. 503–516, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Xu, W. Wang, Z. Tang, T. Xu, and L. Chen, “Taurine acts as a glycine receptor agonist in slices of rat inferior colliculus,” Hearing Research, vol. 220, no. 1-2, pp. 95–105, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Saransaari and S. S. Oja, “Taurine and neural cell damage,” Amino Acids, vol. 19, no. 3-4, pp. 509–526, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
P. R. Louzada, A. C. P. Lima, D. L. Mendonça-Silva, F. Noël, F. G. De Mello, and S. T. Ferreira, “Taurine prevents the neurotoxicity of β-amyloid and glutamate receptor agonists: activation of GABA receptors and possible implications for Alzheimer's disease and other neurological disorders,” The FASEB Journal, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 511–518, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. R. Light and E. R. Perl, “Spinal termination of functionally identified primary afferent neurons with slowly conducting myelinated fibers,” Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 186, no. 2, pp. 133–150, 1979.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Sugiura, C. L. Lee, and E. R. Perl, “Central projections of identified, unmyelinated (C) afferent fibers innervating mammalian skin,” Science, vol. 234, no. 4774, pp. 358–361, 1986.
View at: Google Scholar
W. D. Willis and K. N. Westlund, “Neuroanatomy of the pain system and of the pathways that modulate pain,” Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 2–31, 1997.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Lorenzo, M. Ramien, M. St. Louis, Y. De Koninck, and A. Ribeiro-da-Silva, “Postnatal changes in the rexed lamination and markers of nociceptive afferents in the superficial dorsal horn of the rat,” Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 508, no. 4, pp. 592–604, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. J. Sessle, “Acute and chronic craniofacial pain: brainstem mechanisms of nociceptive transmission and neuroplasticity, and their clinical correlates,” Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 57–91, 2000.
View at: Google Scholar
S. F. A. Santos, S. Rebelo, V. A. Derkach, and B. V. Safronov, “Excitatory interneurons dominate sensory processing in the spinal substantia gelatinosa of rat,” Journal of Physiology, vol. 581, no. 1, pp. 241–254, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. M. Braz, M. A. Nassar, J. N. Wood, and A. I. Basbaum, “Parallel “pain” pathways arise from subpopulations of primary afferent nociceptor,” Neuron, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 787–793, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. J. Todd and A. C. Sullivan, “Light microscope study of the coexistence of GABA-like and glycine-like immunoreactivities in the spinal cord of the rat,” Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 296, no. 3, pp. 496–505, 1990.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. J. Todd, C. Watt, R. C. Spike, and W. Sieghart, “Colocalization of GABA, glycine, and their receptors at synapses in the rat spinal cord,” The Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 974–982, 1996.
View at: Google Scholar
R. L. Macdonald and R. W. Olsen, “GABA(A) receptor channels,” Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol. 17, pp. 569–602, 1994.
View at: Google Scholar
T. J. Price, F. Cervero, and Y. de Koninck, “Role of cation-chloride-cotransporters (CCC) in pain and hyperalgesia,” Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 547–555, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. F. MacDonald, M. F. Jackson, and M. A. Beazely, “Hippocampal long-term synaptic plasticity and signal amplification of NMDA receptors,” Critical Reviews in Neurobiology, vol. 18, no. 1-2, pp. 71–84, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar
H. Möhler, U. Rudolph, D. Boison, P. Singer, J. Feldon, and B. K. Yee, “Regulation of cognition and symptoms of psychosis: focus on GABA(A) receptors and glycine transporter 1,” Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, vol. 90, no. 1, pp. 58–64, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. S. Serrano, M. I. Serrano, M. R. Guerrero, R. Ruiz, and J. Polo, “Antinociceptive effect of taurine and its inhibition by naxolone,” General Pharmacology, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 333–336, 1990.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. S. Hornfeldt, D. H. Smullin, C. D. Schamber, X. Sun, and A. A. Larson, “Antinociceptive effects of intrathecal taurine and calcium in the mouse,” Life Sciences, vol. 50, no. 24, pp. 1925–1934, 1992.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. Belfer, E. Davidson, A. Ratner, E. Beery, Y. Shir, and Z. Seltzer, “Dietary supplementation with the inhibitory amino acid taurine suppresses autotomy in HA rats,” NeuroReport, vol. 9, no. 13, pp. 3103–3107, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
I. S. Lee, W. M. Renno, and A. J. Beitz, “A quantitative light and electron microscopic analysis of taurine-like immunoreactivity in the dorsal horn of the rat spinal cord,” Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 321, no. 1, pp. 65–82, 1992.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. A. Bereiter, S. Shen, and A. P. Benetti, “Sex differences in amino acid release from rostral trigeminal subnucleus caudalis after acute injury to the TMJ region,” Pain, vol. 98, no. 1-2, pp. 89–99, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. A. Park, H. Yin, J. P. Bhattarai et al., “Postnatal change of GluR5 kainate receptor expression in the substantia gelatinosa neuron of the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis in mice,” Brain Research, vol. 1346, pp. 52–61, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Tokutomi, M. Kaneda, and N. Akaike, “What confers specificity on glycine for its receptor site?” British Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 97, no. 2, pp. 353–360, 1989.
View at: Google Scholar
N. Hussy, C. Deleuze, A. Pantaloni, M. G. Desarménien, and F. Moos, “Agonist action of taurine on glycine receptors in rat supraoptic magnocellular neurones: possible role in osmoregulation,” Journal of Physiology, vol. 502, no. 3, pp. 609–621, 1997.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z. Tang, Y. Lu, and L. Chen, “Developmental stability of taurine's activation on glycine receptors in cultured neurons of rat auditory cortex,” Neuroscience Letters, vol. 430, no. 1, pp. 54–59, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
N. Y. Song, H. B. Shi, C. Y. Li, and S. K. Yin, “Interaction between taurine and GABA(A)/glycine receptors in neurons of the rat anteroventral cochlear nucleus,” Brain Research, vol. 1472, pp. 1–10, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Puopolo, I. Kratskin, and O. Belluzzi, “Direct inhibitory effect of taurine on relay neurones of the rat olfactory bulb in vitro,” NeuroReport, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 2319–2323, 1998.
View at: Google Scholar
O. Belluzzi, M. Puopolo, M. Benedusi, and I. Kratskin, “Selective neuroinhibitory effects of taurine in slices of rat main olfactory bulb,” Neuroscience, vol. 124, no. 4, pp. 929–944, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Z.-Y. Wu and T. Xu, “Taurine-evoked chloride current and its potentiation by intracellular Ca²⁺ in immature rat hippocampal CA1 neurons,” Amino Acids, vol. 24, no. 1-2, pp. 155–161, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
B. M. Stell and I. Mody, “Receptors with different affinities mediate phasic and tonic GABA(A) conductances in hippocampal neurons,” The Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 22, no. 10, p. RC223, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
D. W. Cope, S. W. Hughes, and V. Crunelli, “GABA(A) receptor-mediated tonic inhibition in thalamic neurons,” The Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 25, no. 50, pp. 11553–11563, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Shirasaki, M. R. Klee, T. Nakaye, and N. Akaike, “Differential blockade of bicuculline and strychnine on GABA- and glycine-induced responses in dissociated rat hippocampal pyramidal cells,” Brain Research, vol. 561, no. 1, pp. 77–83, 1991.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Horikoshi, A. Asanuma, K. Yanagisawa, K. Anzai, and S. Goto, “Taurine and beta-alanine act on both GABA and glycine receptors in Xenopus oocyte injected with mouse brain messenger RNA,” Brain Research, vol. 464, no. 2, pp. 97–105, 1988.
View at: Google Scholar
Z. Jiang, K. Krnjević, F. Wang, and J. H. Ye, “Taurine activates strychnine-sensitive glycine receptors in neurons freshly isolated from nucleus accumbens of young rats,” Journal of Neurophysiology, vol. 91, no. 1, pp. 248–257, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Pfeiffer, D. Graham, and H. Betz, “Purification by affinity chromatography of the glycine receptor of rat spinal cord,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 257, no. 16, pp. 9389–9393, 1982.
View at: Google Scholar
P. Legendre, “The glycinergic inhibitory synapse,” Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, vol. 58, no. 5-6, pp. 760–793, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
J. Grudzinska, R. Schemm, S. Haeger et al., “The β subunit determines the ligand binding properties of synaptic glycine receptors,” Neuron, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 727–739, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. H. Cheng, M. Cascio, and R. D. Coalson, “Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulations of the α1 glycine receptor reveals different states of the channel,” Proteins, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 581–593, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. Pribilla, T. Takagi, D. Langosch, J. Bormann, and H. Betz, “The atypical M2 segment of the β subunit confers picrotoxinin resistance to inhibitory glycine receptor channels,” The EMBO Journal, vol. 11, no. 12, pp. 4305–4311, 1992.
View at: Google Scholar
P. Jiang, Y. Kong, X. Zhang, W. Wang, C. Liu, and T. Xu, “Glycine receptor in rat hippocampal and spinal cord neurons as a molecular target for rapid actions of 17-β-estradiol,” Molecular Pain, vol. 5, article 2, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Takazawa and A. B. MacDermott, “Glycinergic and GABAergic tonic inhibition fine tune inhibitory control in regionally distinct subpopulations of dorsal horn neurons,” Journal of Physiology, vol. 588, no. 14, pp. 2571–2587, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. J. Whiting, “GABA-A receptor subtypes in the brain: a paradigm for CNS drug discovery?” Drug Discovery Today, vol. 8, no. 10, pp. 445–450, 2003.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
E. R. Korpi, R. M. Mihalek, S. T. Sinkkonen et al., “Altered receptor subtypes in the forebrain of GABA(A) receptor δ subunit-deficient mice: recruitment of γ2 subunits,” Neuroscience, vol. 109, no. 4, pp. 733–743, 2002.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. Sieghart and G. Sperk, “Subunit composition, distribution and function of GABA(A) receptor subtypes,” Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 795–816, 2002.
View at: Google Scholar
P. Somogyi, J.-M. Fritschy, D. Benke, J. D. B. Roberts, and W. Sieghart, “The γ2 subunit of the GABA(A) receptor is concentrated in synaptic junctions containing the α1 and β2/3 subunits in hippocampus, cerebellum and globus pallidus,” Neuropharmacology, vol. 35, no. 9-10, pp. 1425–1444, 1996.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. Wei, N. Zhang, Z. Peng, C. R. Houser, and I. Mody, “Perisynaptic localization of delta subunit-containing GABA(A) receptors and their activation by GABA spillover in the mouse dentate gyrus,” The Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 23, no. 33, pp. 10650–10661, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
A. Semyanov, M. C. Walker, D. M. Kullmann, and R. A. Silver, “Tonically active GABA(A) receptors: modulating gain and maintaining the tone,” Trends in Neurosciences, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 262–269, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Farrant and Z. Nusser, “Variations on an inhibitory theme: phasic and tonic activation of GABA(A) receptors,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 215–229, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. P. Bhattarai, S. A. Park, J. B. Park et al., “Tonic extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptor currents control gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuron excitability in the mouse,” Endocrinology, vol. 152, no. 4, pp. 1551–1561, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. J. A. Game and D. Lodge, “The pharmacology of the inhibition of dorsal horn neurones by impulses in myelinated cutaneous afferents in the cat,” Experimental Brain Research, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 75–84, 1975.
View at: Google Scholar
M. Yoshimura and S. Nishi, “Blind patch-clamp recordings from substantia gelatinosa neurons in adult rat spinal cord slices: pharmacological properties of synaptic currents,” Neuroscience, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 519–526, 1993.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Ripps and W. Shen, “Review: taurine: a “very essential” amino acid,” Molecular Vision, vol. 18, pp. 2673–2686, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
K. Matsumoto, E. H. Lo, A. R. Pierce, E. F. Halpern, and R. Newcomb, “Secondary elevation of extracellular neurotransmitter amino acids in the reperfusion phase following focal cerebral ischemia,” Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 114–124, 1996.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. Uchiyama-Tsuyuki, H. Araki, T. Yae, and S. Otomo, “Changes in the extracellular concentrations of amino acids in the rat striatum during transient focal cerebral ischemia,” Journal of Neurochemistry, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 1074–1078, 1994.
View at: Google Scholar
M. A. M. Silva, G. M. A. Cunha, G. S. B. Viana, and V. S. N. Rao, “Taurine modulates chemical nociception in mice,” Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, vol. 26, no. 12, pp. 1319–1324, 1993.
View at: Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2013 Thi Thanh Hoang Nguyen et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

3672

Downloads

1551

Citations

Neural Plasticity

Ion Channel Modulation in Spinal/Trigeminal Synaptic Plasticity

Activation of Glycine and Extrasynaptic GABAA Receptors by Taurine on the Substantia Gelatinosa Neurons of the Trigeminal Subnucleus Caudalis

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Animals

2.2. Brain Slice Preparation

2.3. Electrophysiological Procedures and Data Analysis

2.4. Drugs

2.5. Statistics

3. Results

3.1. Taurine Induces Nondesensitizing Membrane Potential and Holding Current Changes on SG Neuron

3.2. Postsynaptic Action of Taurine on SG Neurons

3.3. Taurine Activates Glycine Receptors on SG Neurons

3.4. Taurine-Induced Actions Were Mediated via GlyRs and Extrasynaptic GABAA Receptors

4. Discussion

Acknowledgment

References

Copyright

Activation of Glycine and Extrasynaptic GABA_A Receptors by Taurine on the Substantia Gelatinosa Neurons of the Trigeminal Subnucleus Caudalis

3.4. Taurine-Induced Actions Were Mediated via GlyRs and Extrasynaptic GABA_A Receptors