Mechanistic illustration of the neuronal toxicity of Cd. (1) Cd-induced neuron cell apoptosis and ROS (reactive oxygen species) are mediated through Ca2+-mitochondria signaling and Ca2+-membrane channels. (2) Cd impaired neurogenesis. (3) Cd accumulation in the brain leads to the altered gene expression and epigenetic effect. (4) Cd has estrogen-like effect, which can induce endocrine disruption by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis in different aspects. Meanwhile, these potential mechanisms have possible interactions. The solid black arrows represent the stimulation, the solid black line segments indicate the inhibition, and the dotted lines represent the negative feedback control of the HPG axis.
