Research Article
Cognitive Reserve in Parkinson’s Disease: The Effects of Welsh-English Bilingualism on Executive Function
Table 1
Baseline demographics and disease variables.
(a) |
| Variable-mean value (SD) | Monolingual | Bilingual | Chi squared | Significance | ANOVA | Significance | | |
| Age | 71.5 (7.9) | 71.3 (10.5) | | | 0.01 | .89 | Age at diagnosis | 64.6 (9.2) | 65.2 (13.3) | | | 0.07 | .79 | Education years | 13.0 (2.8) | 11.8 (2.3) | | | 5.26 | .02 | UPDRS motor | 20.4 (8.8) | 23.1 (12.2) | | | 1.49 | .22 | HADS depression | 3.9 (2.4) | 4.3 (3.1) | | | 0.59 | .44 | HADS anxiety | 4.7 (3.1) | 5.3 (3.7) | | | 0.78 | .37 | MMSE | 28.6 (2.0) | 27.9 (2.4) | | | 3.04 | .08 | LED | 576 (387) | 493 (386) | | | 1.171 | .28 | Anticholinergic cognitive burden | 0.47 (1.3) | 0.82 (1.3) | | | 1.74 | .18 | Male | 40 | 31 | 0.09 | .46 | Female | 17 | 15 |
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(b) |
| Variable | Category | Monolingual | Bilingual | Chi squared | Significance | ANOVA | Significance | | |
| Socioeconomic status | (I) Professional | 7 | 1 | 5.53 | .23 | | | (II) Managerial/technical | 21 | 17 | (III N) nonmanual skilled | 9 | 8 | (III M) manual skilled | 14 | 10 | (IV) Partly skilled | 6 | 10 | (V) Unskilled | 2 | 0 |
| Education years category | (1) 7–11 | 20 | 23 | 5.02 | .08 | | | (2) 12–15 | 23 | 19 | (3) 16–20 | 14 | 4 |
| Education level category | (1) Left before 16, no qualification | 9 | 22 | 16.38 | .001 | | | (2) Secondary only | 9 | 10 | (3) Further education/vocational | 29 | 11 | (4) University & higher degrees | 10 | 3 |
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Hoehn and Yahr [20] | 1 | 31 | 32 | 2.19 | .33 | | | 2 | 19 | 11 | 3 & 4 | 6 | 3 |
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Classification based on occupation (64). Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS), and levodopa equivalent dose (LED).
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