Low Back Pain in Athletes Is Associated with General and Sport Specific Risk Factors: A Comprehensive Review of Longitudinal Studies

Table 1

Study characteristics of included studies.

	Author	Sport	Follow-up	Sample size	Age	Groups	Examined risk factor	Conclusion
1	Burdorf et al., 1996 [33]	Golf	1 year	Male: 196	20–60	LBP (); Non-HLB ()	Age (years); Previous low back pain more than once and lasting >3 months; Involvement in other sports; Absence from work because of previous back pain	Previous back pain was strong predictor
2	Evans et al., 2005 [22]	Golf	3 years	Male: 14	18–35 yr	With LBP (); Without LBP ()	Anthropometric variables, flexibility, muscle strength, and muscle endurance	BMI, hip flexor length, and asymmetry on the side bridge endurance test were significantly correlated; No other anthropometric or flexibility test was significantly correlated with reports of LBP
3	Hjelm et al., 2012 [31]	Tennis	2 years	Total: 55; Male: 35; Female: 25	12–18	Injured: 39; Uninjured: 16	Single and double play: (>6 versus <6 h/week); Previous injury of the back; lateral flexion of the neck at the dominant and nondominant side (decreased); Rack side and length (normal/extra length); Tennis hours/year; Participating in other sports; >10° difference between dominant and nondominant ROM of (neck, shoulder, and elbow)	Previous injury to the back and playing tennis more than 6 h per week and decreased lateral flexion of the neck at the dominant side were reported as risk factors for back pain
4	Kujala et al., 1994 [21]	Soccer; Ice hockey; Gymnastics; Skating; Ballet	1 year	Total: 119; Male: 52; Female: 67	10.3–13.3	With LBP: 24; Without LBP: 95	Lumbar flexion and extension, forward and side bending, hip flexor tightness, hamstring tightness, back and abdominal endurance	Decreased lumbar flexion and hip flexor tightness (in male) and high body weight and previous LBP in female were predictor
5	Kujala et al., 1997 [28]	Soccer; Ice hockey; Gymnastics; Skating	3 years	Baseline: 116; Follow-up: 98; Male: 50; Female: 48	10.3–13.3	With LBP: 35; Without LBP: 63	Anthropometric variables and lumbar mobility	Predictor: low maximum extension of the lumbar
6	Nadler et al., 1998 [27]	Soccer; Football; Baseball; Track; Tennis; Swimming; Basketball; Volleyball; Softball	1 year	Total: 257; Male: 170; Female: 87		With LBP: 31; Without LBP: 109	Lower extremity injuries; flexor tightness	Significant difference: in lower extremity injuries and previous LBP
7	Renkawitz et al., 2006 [32]	Tennis		Total: 82; Male: 51; Female: 31	33	With LBP: 46; Without LBP: 36	Spinal mobility and muscular flexibility of the lower back	Neuromuscular imbalance: direct relationship between LBP
							Isometric voluntary maximum trunk extension strength	Maximum isometric trunk extension strength was not predictor