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| Stem cell source tissue | Author | Experimental model | Mode of delivery | Therapeutic cell properties | Key outcome measures |
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| Adipose | Georgiou et al. [99] | Rat sciatic transection (15 mm gap, 8 weeks) | Aligned cellular collagen constructs in a collagen tube | Differentiated rat ADSCs | Axon regeneration, myelination. |
| Hsueh et al. [185] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 6 weeks) | Neurospheres seeded in a chitosan-coated silicon conduit | Xenogeneic hADSC neurospheres | Axon regeneration, myelination, inflammation, intraneural scarring, muscle fibres, and gait. |
| Kingham et al. [97] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 2 weeks) | Cells in fibrin matrix seeded in a fibrin conduit | Stimulated xenogeneic hADSCs | Axon regeneration, vascularisation, cell survival, and gene expression changes in DRG and spinal cord. |
| Scholz et al. [186] | Athymic rat sciatic transection (13 mm gap, up to 4 months) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a silastic conduit | Xenogeneic differentiated hADSCs | Axon regeneration, extensor postural thrust, sensory evaluation, and muscle weight. |
| Carriel et al. [187] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 12 weeks) | Cells in a fibrin-agarose hydrogel seeded in a collagen conduit | Autologous ADSCs | Axon regeneration, myelination, electrophysiology, pinch test, and toe spread. |
| Mohammadi et al. [33] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, up to 12 weeks) | Cells in PBS seeded in a silicone conduit | Allogeneic ADSCs | Nerve fibres, walking track analysis, and muscle weight. |
| Suganuma et al. [188] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 2 weeks) | Cells in type I collagen gel seeded in a silicone conduit | Autologous uncultured ADSCs | Axon regeneration, Schwann cell infiltration, cell survival, and gene expression in repaired tissue. |
| Orbay et al. [189] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, up to 6 months) | Cells in collagen gel seeded in a silicone conduit | Autologous ADSCs differentiated into Schwann cell-like cells | Nerve fibres, vascularisation, cell survival, walking track analysis electrophysiology, and muscle weight. |
| Liu et al. [190] | Rat sciatic transection (15 mm gap, 12 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in an acellular nerve allograft | Allogeneic undifferentiated ADSCs | Footprint analysis, sciatic functional index, electrophysiology, myelination, and nerve fibre density. |
| Reid et al. [191] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 2 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a PCL conduit | Allogeneic ADSCs differentiated into Schwann cell-like cells | Gene expression changes in the DRG. |
| Shen et al. [192] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, up to 8 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a GGT conduit | Allogeneic undifferentiated ADSCs | Electrophysiology, walking track analysis, footprint analysis, nerve fibres, and myelination. |
| Sun et al. [193] | Rat facial transection (8 mm gap, 8 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a decellularised allogeneic artery conduit | Autologous ADSCs differentiated into Schwann cell-like cells | Functional evaluation of vibrissae movement, electrophysiology, morphological evaluation of regenerated nerve segments, and retrograde labelling of facial motor neurons. |
| Wei et al. [194] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, up to 24 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded onto a chitosan/silk fibroin conduit | Allogeneic undifferentiated ADSCs | Walking track analysis, footprint analysis, muscle mass, axon regeneration, and myelination. |
| di Summa et al. [93] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 2 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a fibrin conduit | Allogeneic ADSCs differentiated into Schwann cell-like cells | Axon regeneration, Schwann cell infiltration. |
| Erba et al. [94] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 2 weeks) | Cells in fibrinogen seeded in a PHB conduit | Allogeneic undifferentiated ADSCs | Axonal regeneration, transplanted cell tracking. |
| Zhang et al. [195] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 3 months) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a xenogeneic acellular graft | Autologous ADSCs differentiated to a neuronal phenotype | Axon regeneration, myelination, and electrophysiology. |
| Ghoreishian et al. [196] | Dog facial nerve transection (7 mm gap, 12 weeks) | Cells in an alginate hydrogel seeded in a GORE-TEX® conduit | Autologous undifferentiated ADSCs | Axon regeneration, electrophysiology. |
|
| Bone marrow | Ding et al. [36] | Dog sciatic transection (50 mm gap, 6 months) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a chitosan/PLGA conduit | Autologous undifferentiated BMSCs | Electrophysiology, muscle mass, axon regeneration, myelination, and vascularisation. |
| Xue et al. [37] | Dog sciatic transection (60 mm gap, 12 months) | Cells in saline seeded in a chitosan/PLGA conduit | Autologous undifferentiated BMSCs | Posture and gait analysis, electrophysiology, muscle mass, myelination, and nerve fibres. |
| Sakar et al. [197] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, up to 8 weeks) | Cells in PBS seeded in a PHBHHx nerve graft | Allogeneic undifferentiated BMSCs | Electrophysiology, axon regeneration, myelination, walking track analysis, and vascularisation. |
| Hu et al. [38] | Monkey median transection (50 mm gap, 1 year) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a chitosan/PLGA conduit | Autologous undifferentiated BMSCs | Behaviour observation, electrophysiology, myelination, safety evaluation, and axon regeneration. |
| Wakao et al. [39] | Monkey median transection (20 mm gap, 1 year) | Cells in a collagen sponge seeded in a biodegradable conduit | Autologous BMSCs differentiated to Schwann cell-like cells | Cell proliferation for local tumour formation, electrophysiology, hand movement analysis, immunocytochemistry, general health follow-up, immune response, myelination, and axon regeneration. |
| Oliveira et al. [156] | Mouse median transection (2 mm gap, 8 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a PCL conduit | Autologous undifferentiated BMSCs | Myelination, nerve fibres, electrophysiology, muscle mass, creatine phosphokinase levels, grasping test, and immunohistochemistry. |
| Ladak et al. [34] | Rat sciatic transection (12 mm gap, 12 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a biodegradable collagen nerve guide | Autologous BMSCs differentiated to Schwann cell-like cells | Electrophysiology, axon regeneration, and muscle mass. |
| Mohammadi et al. [198] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, up to 12 weeks) | Cells in PBS seeded in an inside-out vein graft | Allogeneic undifferentiated BMSCs | Walking track analysis, immunohistochemistry, muscle mass, axon regeneration, and myelination. |
|
| Embryonic | Cui et al. [28] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, up to 3 months) | Cells in culture medium seeded into the gap between the nerve stumps with the surrounding epineurium as a natural conduit | Xenogeneic mouse ESCs differentiated into neural progenitor cells | Electrophysiology, axon regeneration, and myelination. |
|
| Umbilical cord (Wharton’s Jelly) | Matsuse et al. [102] | Rat sciatic transection (8 mm gap, up to 21 days) | Cells in Matrigel seeded in transpermeable tubes | Allogeneic umbilical cord stem cells differentiated into Schwann cell-like cells | Walking track analysis, immunohistochemistry, myelination, and axonal regeneration. |
|
| Dental pulp | Matsushita et al. [199] | Rat sciatic transection (3 mm gap, up to 32 weeks) | Cells in PBS seeded in a chitosan conduit | Xenogeneic human whole dental pulp | Immunohistochemistry, myelination, and axon regeneration. |
|
| Neural tissue | Ni et al. [80] | Rat sciatic transection (15 mm gap, up to 12 weeks) | Cells in culture medium seeded in a PLA conduit | Xenogeneic mouse undifferentiated NSCs | Walking track analysis, sciatic functional index, electrophysiology, revascularisation, axon regeneration, and myelination. |
| Liard et al. [79] | Pig femoral transection (30 mm gap, up to 240 days) | Neurospheres seeded in an autologous venous bridge | Allogeneic undifferentiated NSCs | Electromyography, thigh flexion, and phenotypic characterization of grafted cell progeny. |
|
| Skin | Park et al. [73] | Pig femoral transection (10 mm gap, up to 4 weeks) | Cells in fibrin glue seeded in a Lyoplant® conduit | Autologous undifferentiated SKPs | Axon regeneration, nerve fibres. |
|
| iPSCs | Uemura et al. [86] | Mouse sciatic transection (5 mm gap, up to 48 weeks) | Neurospheres seeded in a PCL/PLA conduit | Mouse iPSCs differentiated to neurospheres | Print length factor, foot withdrawal, histomorphometry, and myelination. |
| Wang et al. [45] | Rat sciatic transection (10 mm gap, 1 month) | Cells in Matrigel seeded in a PCL/PLA/sodium acetate conduit | Human iPSCs differentiated to neural crest stem cells | Myelination, axon regeneration, electrophysiology, and cell survival. |
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