Potential Association between Breakfast Skipping and Concomitant Late-Night-Dinner Eating with Metabolic Syndrome and Proteinuria in the Japanese Population
Table 2
Odds ratios and 95% CI of unhealthy eating behaviors for MetS, proteinuria, and obesity.
Normal eating behavior
LNDE alone
Skipping breakfast alone
Skipping breakfast concomitant with LNDE
for trend
MetS
Case
4,595
1,610
900
849
Model 1
1 (Ref)
1.05 (0.99–1.11)
0.91 (0.85–0.98)*
0.97 (0.90–1.05)
0.98 (0.96–1.01)
Model 2
1 (Ref)
1.14 (1.07–1.22)††
1.17 (1.08–1.27)††
1.28 (1.18–1.39)††
1.09 (1.06–1.11)††
Model 3
1 (Ref)
1.17 (1.10–1.25)††
1.08 (1.00–1.17)
1.21 (1.11–1.32)††
1.06 (1.04–1.09)††
Model 3
Men
1 (Ref)
1.20 (1.12–1.30)††
1.08 (0.99–1.19)
1.21 (1.10–1.32)††
1.06 (1.03–1.09)††
Women
1 (Ref)
1.09 (0.96–1.23)
1.04 (0.88–1.23)
1.10 (0.91–1.34)
1.03 (0.98–1.09)
Proteinuria
Case
2,009
741
623
568
Model 1
1 (Ref)
1.10 (1.01–1.20)*
1.50 (1.37–1.65)††
1.53 (1.39–1.69)††
1.17 (1.14–1.21)††
Model 2
1 (Ref)
1.08 (0.99–1.18)
1.43 (1.30–1.57)††
1.45 (1.31–1.60)††
1.15 (1.11–1.18)††
Model 3
1 (Ref)
1.08 (0.99–1.15)
1.37 (1.25–1.51)††
1.40 (1.26–1.55)††
1.13 (1.10–1.17)††
Model 3
Men
1 (Ref)
1.09 (0.98–1.22)
1.40 (1.25–1.58)††
1.43 (1.27–1.61)††
1.14 (1.10–1.18)††
Women
1 (Ref)
1.04 (0.90–1.22)
1.38 (1.16–1.63)†
1.41 (1.16–1.71)†
1.13 (1.07–1.20)††
Obesity
Case
1,038
472
333
360
Model 1
1 (Ref)
1.37 (1.22–1.53)††
1.54 (1.35–1.74)††
1.87 (1.66–2.12)††
1.23 (1.19–1.28)††
Model 2
1 (Ref)
1.27 (1.14–1.42)††
1.31 (1.16–1.49)††
1.57 (1.38–1.77)††
1.16 (1.11–1.20)††
Model 3
1 (Ref)
1.36 (1.22–1.53)††
1.28 (1.13–1.46)†
1.62 (1.42–1.84)††
1.17 (1.12–1.21)††
Model 3
Men
1 (Ref)
1.30 (1.14–1.49)†
1.25 (1.08–1.46)†
1.53 (1.32–1.77)††
1.14 (1.10–1.18)††
Women
1 (Ref)
1.53 (1.25–1.88)††
1.32 (1.01–1.71)*
1.89 (1.45–2.46)††
1.13 (1.07–1.20)††
*, †, ††. Model 1: Unadjusted. Model 2: Adjusted for age and sex. Model 3: Adjusted for age, sex, current smoking (versus nonsmoking), daily alcohol consumption (versus infrequent/no alcohol consumption), having regular exercise, and past history of cardiovascular disease. Obesity was defined as body mass index ≥30.0 kg/m2.
