Review Article

Perspectives in Molecular Imaging Using Staging Biomarkers and Immunotherapies in Alzheimer’s Disease

Table 1

Genetics and environmental risk factors associated with human AD etiology.

GeneticsA

AD-causative genes
 Presenilin 1 (PSEN1)
 Presenilin 2 (PSEN2)
 Aβ A4 precursor protein (APP)
AD-susceptible genes
 Apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 (APOEε4)
 Sortilin-related receptor 1 (SORL1)
 Amyloid beta A4 precursor protein-binding, family B, member 2 (APBB2)
 Hemochromatosis (HFE)
 Nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3)
 PAX-interacting protein 1 (PAXIP1)
 Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (PLAU)
 Alpha-2 macroglobulin (A2M)
 Bleomycin hydrolase (BLMH)
 Myeloperoxidase (MPO)
 Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
New AD Susceptible Loci
 Programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4)
 Evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediate in Toll (ECSIT)
 Phosphatidylinositol binding clathrin assembly protein (PICALM)
 Complement receptor type 1 (CR1)
 Myc box-dependent-interacting protein 1 (BIN1)
 CD2-associated protein (CD2AP)
 CD33
 Ephrin type-A receptor 1 (EPHA1)
 Clusterin (CLU)
 ATP-binding cassette subfamily A member 7 (ABCA7)
 Membrane-spanning 4A4E and 6A (MS4A6A/MS4A4E)
 Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor (OLR1)
 Cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (CYP46)

Environmental exposuresB

Health factors
 Food diets
 Cigarette smoking
 Alcohol consumption
 Head trauma
 Viral infections
 Systemic inflammation
 Metal and pesticide exposure
Psychosocial factors
 Education
 Social network
 Leisure activities
 Physical activity
 Chronic stress
 Depression
Somatic Factors
 Blood pressure
 Obesity
 Diabetes mellitus
 Cardiovascular diseases
 Cerebrovascular diseases
 Hyperlipidemia

AGenetic factors associated with AD were obtained from OMIM database and [55, 61, 62, 68].
BEnvironmental factors associated with AD were obtained from [6365].