Cytotoxicity Potentials of Eleven Bangladeshi Medicinal Plants

Khatun, Amina; Rahman, Mahmudur; Haque, Tania; Rahman, Md. Mahfizur; Akter, Mahfuja; Akter, Subarna; Jhumur, Afrin

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/913127

The Scientific World Journal

On this page

Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2014 | Article ID 913127 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/913127

Cytotoxicity Potentials of Eleven Bangladeshi Medicinal Plants

Amina Khatun,¹Mahmudur Rahman,²Tania Haque,¹Md. Mahfizur Rahman,^1,3Mahfuja Akter,¹Subarna Akter,¹and Afrin Jhumur¹

Academic Editor: Valdir Cechinel Filho

Received17 Jul 2014

Accepted16 Oct 2014

Published09 Nov 2014

Abstract

Various forms of cancer are rising all over the world, requiring newer therapy. The quest of anticancer drugs both from natural and synthetic sources is the demand of time. In this study, fourteen extracts of different parts of eleven Bangladeshi medicinal plants which have been traditionally used for the treatment of different types of carcinoma, tumor, leprosy, and diseases associated with cancer were evaluated for their cytotoxicity for the first time. Extraction was conceded using methanol. Phytochemical groups like reducing sugars, tannins, saponins, steroids, gums, flavonoids, and alkaloids were tested using standard chromogenic reagents. Plants were evaluated for cytotoxicity by brine shrimp lethality bioassay using Artemia salina comparing with standard anticancer drug vincristine sulphate. All the extracts showed potent to moderate cytotoxicity ranging from LC₅₀ 2 to 115 µg/mL. The highest toxicity was shown by Hygrophila spinosa seeds ( µg/mL) and the lowest by Litsea glutinosa leaves ( µg/mL) in comparison with standard vincristine sulphate ( µg/mL). Among the plants, the plants traditionally used in different cancer and microbial treatments showed highest cytotoxicity. The results support their ethnomedicinal uses and require advanced investigation to elucidate responsible compounds as well as their mode of action.

1. Introduction

Nature is the source of 87% of drugs used to treat all categorized human diseases. 25% of prescribed drugs originated from plants. Over 3000 species of plants have been reported for their anticancer property. Uddin et al. [1] stated that till now about 80% people in developing countries rely on traditional plant based medicines for their primary health care. Focus on natural products is increasing day by day as it serves as an enormous source of new anticancer drugs. According to Washart [2] natural products are vital in the treatment of cancer, as a number of important anticancer agents have been derived from natural products, including plant-derived agents such as the vinca alkaloids, taxanes, and topoisomerase I inhibitors. According to intercontinental marketing services report [3], the anticancer drug market in Bangladesh is growing at 20 percent a year due to an alarming rise in cancer patients. So, search for new anticancer drugs is the demand of time.

Bangladesh has a rich and prestigious heritage of herbal medicines among the South Asian countries. Ghani [4] estimated that about 250 species of medicinal plants are used for the preparation of traditional medicines which is the half of total species of plants grown in Bangladesh. However, the majority of these plants have not yet undergone chemical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies to investigate their bioactive compound(s). Traditional resources and ecological diversity indicate that Bangladeshi plants represent an exciting resource for new drug discovery.

Ahmed and Uddin [5, 6] identified Melastoma malabathricum L., synonym M. polyanthum, as a spreading shrub; leaves are opposite and lanceolate; flowers are solitary clustered, purple in color. The plant grows in the hill tracts and also in roadside of central and east region of Bangladesh. It is also found in Thailand, India, and Sri Lanka. Many researchers [7–10] recognized this plant as an ethnomedicinal plant in various countries of the world. M. malabathricum is reported as antiviral by Nazlina et al. [11], antibacterial by Choudhury et al. [12], antioxidant and cytotoxic by Alwash et al. [13], antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic by Zakaria et al. [14], antidiarrhoeal by Sunilson et al. [15], antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic by Kumar et al. [16], and hepatoprotective by Mamat et al. [17]. Sirat et al. [18] isolated amides, triterpenes, and flavonoids.

Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) Roxb., synonym L. chinensis, is medium-sized deciduous or semievergreen tree; leaves are aromatic, ovate, or elliptic. The plant grows in Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, and Malaysia as described by Uddin [6]. Mandal et al. [19] reported antimicrobial, Kar et al. [20] cardiovascular, and Menon et al. [21] psychopharmacological activity. Agrawal et al. [22] isolated four butenolides, Wang et al. [23] 2′-oxygenated flavone glycoside, and Herath et al. [24] D-xylose and L-arabinose from the plant.

Malpighia coccigera is not locally considered as a medicinal plant; rather it is an ornamental hedge plant. Seipold et al. [25] isolated floral oil from this plant. Evans [26] considered that other species of Malpighia are hallucinogenic.

Baker [27] identified Pseudelephantopus spicatus L. as a herb; hairs are present on both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf blade, flowers are white borne in narrow bullet-shaped heads, four flowers per head, and the pappus is present on the end of each fruit. Odonne et al. [28] isolated three compounds: two hirsutinolides and ursolic acid having activity against Leishmania amazonensis from P. spicatus.

According to Uddin [29], Viscum orientale Willd., synonym V. verticillatum Roxb., is semiparasitic much-branched shrub on trees; leaves are opposite, thick, elliptic, or obovate, rarely lanceolate, obtuse, and glabrous, flowers are in axillary sessile or shortly pedunculate, acute, deciduous, and berry is ovoid or subglobose. The plant grows on various species of trees at low and medium altitudes forests of Chittagong, Chittagong hill tracts, and Sundarban mangrove forest in Bangladesh. It also occurs in India (Bihar, West Bengal, and Kerala). Schneeweiss [30] stated that the plant parasitizing Strychnos nux-vomica tree is used in Indian medicine. Satish et al. [31] reported the parasite for antibacterial activity. Lee et al. [32] evaluated another species, V. album for inhibitory activities of pancreatic lipase and phosphodiesterase. Park et al. [33] reported that V. album contains beta-galactoside- and N-acetyl-D-galactosamine-specific lectin II (60 kDa), polysaccharides, and viscotoxin (5 kDa) with their antitumor activity.

Naser et al. [34] described that Thuja occidentalis L. is indigenous to eastern North America and is grown in Europe as an ornamental tree with a maximal height. It has coniferous pyramidal features, with flattened branches and twigs in one plane, bearing small scale-like leaves. Over the whole year, the leaves are green, with the lower side showing a brighter green where resin glands also reside. Small coniferous pins contain the seeds. Kumar et al. [35] reported antibacterial, anticancer, anti-HIV, antispasmodic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, insecticidal, radioprotective, antiatherosclerosis, and neuropharmacological and Naser et al. [34] anti-influenza activities of this plant.

Ahmed [5] described Hoya parasitica (Roxb.), synonym Asclepias parasitica, as a tall climber; its stems are stout or slender, glabrous. Its leaves are ovate elliptic or lanceolate acute or acuminate peduncles are solitary or in pairs short or long slender or stout, pedicels slender long glabourous, coronal-processes longer than the corolla tube; the plant bears aesthetic flowers in May to June. It is mostly grown parasite on giant trees, found in the Chittagong, Sylhet, and Satkhira districts and in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh. It also grows in Assam, East Bengal, Tippera, Cronulla, Malacca, Singapore, and the Andaman Island. One of the same authors of this study [36, 37] reported the antibacterial and antinociceptive activities of Hoya parasitica leaves and growth inhibitory effects of dihydrocanaric acid against both HeLa and SW480 cells. Mukherjee et al. [38] reported the plant to contain triterpenic 3,4-seco acid 3,4-secolup-20(29)-en-3-oic acid, along with lupeol and lupenone from stem and Sadhu et al. [37] reported to contain an androstanoid, a sesquiterpene, and a phenolic compound, together with a known triterpene, dihydrocanaric acid.

Ahmed [5] stated that Cnicus arvensis (L.) Roth., synonym Cirsium arvense (L). Scop., is an erect herb; leaves are alternate; flower heads are solitary, hermaphrodite, pappus, and purple. It grows in sandy soils, river banks, and rice fields in Bangladesh. No scientific study has been reported yet.

According to Ghani, Ahmed, and Hooker Sir [4, 5, 39], Commelina benghalensis Linn. is a pubescent and ascending herb which grows all over Bangladesh. The plant is reported for its antimicrobial by Khan et al. [40], sedative and anxiolytic by Hasan et al. [41], and anticancer activity by Mbazima et al. [42].

Baccaurea ramiflora Lour., synonym B. sapida (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg., is described by Brandis [43]. It is a semievergreen tree; fruit is yellowish and velvety with pinkish white pulp. M. Sundriyal and R. C. Sundriyal [44] stated that it is native to Southeast Asia region. The plant has antioxidant property which was reported by Goyal et al. [45]. Yang et al. [46] isolated vanilloid derivatives from this plant.

Ahmed [5] described that Hygrophila spinosa T. Ander, synonym H. auriculata, is a stout, erect herb covered with stiff hair, leaves are opposite and lanceolate; flowers are in axillary whorls and purple. It grows throughout the plain districts of Indian subcontinent, in dump areas such as marshy margins of canals, rice fields, and so forth. It is also seen in tropical Himalaya, Ceylon, Myanmar, Indochina, and Malaya. Gomes et al. [47] reported the plant for its haematinic, Mazumdar et al. [48] for antitumor, and Kumari and Iyer [49] for diuretic activity. Previously any class of constituents was not reported. Folklore uses of these plants are summarized in Table 1.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Collection and Identification of Plant Material

The different parts of eleven plants were collected from different parts of Bangladesh. The samples of the plants were mounted on herbarium sheet and the species were taxonomically confirmed by Sarder Nasir Uddin, Principle Scientific Officer, Bangladesh National Herbarium (BNH), Mirpur, Dhaka. The voucher specimens of the plants have been deposited and preserved in BNH library for further collection and reference (Table 2).

2.2. Preparation of Methanol Extract

The collected different plant parts were separated from undesirable materials. They were dried in open air for two weeks. The shade dried plant parts were ground into a coarse powder with the help of a suitable grinder (capacitor start motor, Wuhu motor factory, China). The powders of the plant parts were stored in an airtight container and kept in a cool, dark, and dry place until the analysis commenced. Powered materials were taken in some clean, flat-bottomed glass containers and soaked in methanol. The containers along with their contents were sealed and kept for a period of 10 days with occasional shaking or stirring. The mixtures then underwent a coarse filtration by cotton and Whatman filter paper (Bibby RE200, Sterilin Ltd., UK). The filtrates were concentrated under air. Different amounts of concentrate extracts were obtained which were designated as crude methanol extracts (Table 3). Extraction was conceded following the method depicted by Khatun et al. [55].

2.3. Chemicals and Reagents

Standard chromogenic reagents lead acetate, potassium dichromate, ferric chloride, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, Mayer’s reagent, Dragendorff’s reagent, Wagner’s reagent, Hager’s reagent, Molisch reagent, Benedict’s reagent, and Fehling’s solutions used for preliminary phytochemical chemical group test were of reagent grade and purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC, Missouri, United States. Vincristine sulfate, used as a standard drug in the cytotoxic assay, was collected from the Techno Drugs Limited, Bangladesh. Methanol supplied by Laboratory Patterson Scientific, UK, was used as solvent for maceration of the plant material. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, ≥99.9%, BioReagent, for molecular biology; Sigma-Aldrich, India) was used to dissolve the extracts.

2.4. Instruments and Equipment

Electronic balance (serial number 1508, OHAUS, Germany) was used for this study. Glass-made hatching tank, air pump, and cover lampto grow shrimp were purchased locally. Pipettes, micropipette, test tubes, and other glass apparatus used were of laboratory standard and procured from authorized dealer.

2.5. Test for Different Chemical Groups

The preliminary phytochemical screening of the crude methanol extract was carried out by using standard chromogenic reagents; lead acetate, potassium dichromate, ferric chloride, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, Mayer’s reagent, Dragendorff’s reagent, Wagner’s reagent, Hager’s reagent, Molisch reagent, Benedict’s reagent, and Fehling’s solutions were used to detect steroids, alkaloids, gums, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and reducing sugars using standard protocol [55]. The colour intensity or the precipitate formation was used as analytical responses to these qualitative tests. 10% (w/v) solution of the extract in methanol was used for each of the above tests (Table 3).

2.6. Test for Cytotoxic Activity

Brine shrimp lethality bioassay was performed using the method of Meyer et al. [56]. Brine shrimp nauplii were obtained by hatching brine shrimp (Artemia salina) eggs (Carolina Biological Supply Company, Burlington, NC, USA) in artificial sea-water (3.8% NaCl solution) for 24 hrs. Dissolution of 30 mg of each extract was performed in 3 mL of artificial sea water containing 20% DMSO to give concentration of 10 μg/μL. From this solution 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, and 320 μL were transferred to each 10 mL vial and using artificial sea-water the volume was adjusted to 10 mL by artificial sea water to give concentrations of compound of 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, and 320 μg/mL, respectively. Brine shrimp nauplii were grown in these solutions and their mortality was observed after 24 h. The mortalities at 0 and 320 μg/mL were excluded to get more accurate results except standard vincristine sulfate due to its high toxicity. The resulting data were transformed to probit analysis software (LdP Line software, USA) developed by Finney [57] for determination of LC₅₀ values of the extracts. Artificial sea-water medium containing DMSO used for the analysis was employed as negative control. Vincristine sulfate was used as standard in this assay.

3. Results and Discussion

Fourteen extracts of eleven medicinal plants were evaluated for their cytotoxicity. Among them four extracts, aerial part of Cnicus arvensis, Pseudelephantopus spicatus, and Viscum orientale, Thuja occidentalis leaves, and Hygrophila spinosa seeds showed potent cytotoxicity LC₅₀ ranging from 2 to 22 μg/mL in comparison with standard vincristine sulfate (LC₅₀ = 2.04 μg/mL). Other plants also showed quite high cytotoxicity LC₅₀ ranging from 21 to 115 μg/mL (Table 4). the highest cytotoxicity was found in H. spinosa seeds (LC₅₀ = 2.93 μg/mL) and the lowest in Litsea glutinosa leaves (LC₅₀ = 114.71 μg/mL). We evaluated two plants of the family Asteraceae (C. arvensis and P. spicatus) and both of the plants showed significant cytotoxicity. Leaves of T. occidentalis showed significant cytotoxicity where the bark of this plant showed moderate cytotoxicity. T. occidentalis, H. spinosa, and C. arvensis are used ethnomedicinally in the treatment of cancer. In our investigation, we found the highest cytotoxicity of these plants. But L. glutinosa leaves showed the lowest cytotoxicity though it is traditionally used in treatment of tumor. On the other hand, Malpighia coccigera is not recognized as traditional medicinal plant but showed significant cytotoxicity (LC₅₀ = 35.96 μg/mL). L. glutinosa and M. coccigera may be tested for their cytotoxicity by other method to evaluate the present result. Melastoma malabathricum, L. glutinosa, P. spicatus, Viscum orientale, and Commelina benghalensis are traditionally reputed as either antimicrobial agent or poisonous plant. Cytotoxicity of Melastoma malabathricum was evaluated earlier in a process other than this by Alwash et al. [13] and anticancer activity of Hoya parasitica is previously reported by Sadhu et al. [37].

4. Conclusion

According to Sagar et al. [58], a master herbalist can advise on potential herbal treatments derived from centuries of traditional observations and advanced traditional medical systems such as Ayurveda. It will be imperative to develop a new model of modern pharmacology based on traditional pharmacognosy. Traditionally used plants in cancer treatments proved their efficacy in different pathway like inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis, induction of apoptosis, and so forth. The plants showing significant cytotoxicity can be investigated for their bioactive compounds and their mode of action. Compounds may be isolated from plants showing significant cytotoxicity to identify the cytotoxic compounds and elucidate the possible mode of action using suitable technique. Most of the cytotoxic drugs possess serious adverse effect and their efficacy is unpredictable. New cytotoxic compounds found from these plants may present us a group of new well-tolerated anticancer and antimicrobial drugs.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the authorities of Bangladesh National Herbarium for identifying the plant and letting them use their library. They are also grateful to the Techno Drugs Ltd. for supplying standard vincristine sulfate.

References

S. J. Uddin, I. D. Grice, and E. Tiralongo, “Cytotoxic effects of Bangladeshi medicinal plant extracts,” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2011, Article ID 578092, 7 pages, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. L. Washart, “Anticancer drug development: a global perspective,” 2014, http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/433928.
View at: Google Scholar
“Intercontinental Marketing Services report, First quarter,” http://archive.thedailystar.net/beta2/news/anti-cancer-drug-sales-growing-fast/.
View at: Google Scholar
A. Ghani, Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh: Chemical Constituents and Uses, Asiatic society of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2nd edition, 2003.
N. Ahmed, Wild Flowers of Bangladesh, The University Printing Press, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 1st edition, 2007.
N. S. Uddin, Traditional Uses of Ethnomedicinal Plants of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh National Herbarium, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2006.
A. L. Sajem and K. Gosai, “Traditional use of medicinal plants by the Jaintia tribes in North Cachar Hills district of Assam, northeast India,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 2, article 33, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Uprety, R. C. Poudel, K. K. Shrestha et al., “Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 8, article 16, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Y. Jorim, S. Korape, W. Legu et al., “An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 8, article 47, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Junsongduang, H. Balslev, A. Inta, A. Jampeetong, and P. Wangpakapattanawong, “Medicinal plants from swidden fallows and sacred forest of the Karen and the Lawa in Thailand,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 9, no. 1, article 44, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. Nazlina, S. Norha, A. W. Zarina, and I. B. Ahmad, “Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of Melastoma malabathricum extracts,” Malaysian Applied Biology, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 53–55, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
M. D. Choudhury, D. Nath, and A. D. Talukdar, “Antimicrobial activity of Melastoma malabathricum L,” Assam University Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 76–78, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
M. S. A. Alwash, N. Ibrahim, W. A. Yaacob, and L. B. Din, “Antibacterial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity properties of traditionally used Melastoma malabathricum linn leaves,” Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 6–12, 2014.
View at: Google Scholar
Z. A. Zakaria, R. N. S. R. Mohd. Nor, G. H. Kumar et al., “Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties of Melastoma malabathricum leaves aqueous extract in experimental animals,” Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, vol. 84, no. 12, pp. 1291–1299, 2006.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. J. Sunilson, K. Anandarajagopal, A. V. A. G. Kumari, and S. Mohan, “Antidiarrhoeal activity of leaves of Melastoma malabathricum linn,” Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, vol. 71, no. 6, pp. 691–695, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
V. Kumar, D. Ahmed, P. S. Gupta, F. Anwar, and M. Mujeeb, “Anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant and anti-hyperlipidemic activities of Melastoma malabathricum Linn. leaves in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats,” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 13, article 222, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. S. Mamat, M. F. F. Kamarolzaman, F. Yahya et al., “Methanol extract of Melastoma malabathricum leaves exerted antioxidant and liver protective activity in rats,” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 13, article 326, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. M. Sirat, D. Susanti, F. Ahmad, H. Takayama, and M. Kitajima, “Amides, triterpene and flavonoids from the leaves of Melastoma malabathricum L,” Journal of Natural Medicines, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 492–495, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. C. Mandal, C. K. Kumar, A. Majumder, R. Majumder, and B. C. Maity, “Antibacterial activity of Litsea glutinosa bark,” Fitoterapia, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 439–441, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Kar, M. K. Menon, and C. S. Chauhan, “Effect of essential oil of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robins on cardiovascular system and isolated tissues,” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 61–62, 1970.
View at: Google Scholar
M. K. Menon, A. Kar, and C. S. Chauhan, “Some psychopharmacological actions of the essential oil of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B. Robins,” Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 185–192, 1970.
View at: Google Scholar
N. Agrawal, D. Pareek, S. Dobhal, M. C. Sharma, Y. C. Joshi, and M. P. Dobhal, “Butanolides from methanolic extract of Litsea glutinosa,” Chemistry and Biodiversity, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 394–400, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y.-S. Wang, R. Huang, H. Lu, F.-Y. Li, and J.-H. Yangy, “A New 2′-Oxygenated Flavone Glycoside from Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob,” Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 652–654, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. M. T. B. Herath, N. S. Kumar, and K. M. S. Wimalasiri, “Structural studies of an arabinoxylan isolated from Litsea glutinosa (Lauraceae),” Carbohydrate Research, vol. 198, no. 2, pp. 343–351, 1990.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
L. Seipold, G. Gerlach, and L. Wessjohann, “A New type of floral oil from Malpighia coccigera (Malpighiaceae) and chemical considerations on the evolution of oil flowers,” Chemistry and Biodiversity, vol. 1, no. 10, pp. 1519–1528, 2004.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
W. C. Evans, Trease and Evans' Pharmacognosy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 13th edition, 1994.
C. F. Baker, “A revision of the Elephanthopeae,” Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, vol. 12, no. 5, p. 55, 1902.
View at: Google Scholar
G. Odonne, G. Herbette, V. Eparvier et al., “Antileishmanial sesquiterpene lactones from Pseudelephantopus spicatus, a traditional remedy from the Chayahuita Amerindians (Peru). Part III,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 137, no. 1, pp. 875–879, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. B. Uddin, “Medicinal plants of Bangladesh,” 2014, http://www.mpbd.info/plants/viscum-orientale.php.
View at: Google Scholar
G. M. Schneeweiss, “Correlated evolution of life history and host range in the nonphotosynthetic parasitic flowering plants Orobanche and Phelipanche (Orobanchaceae),” Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 471–478, 2007.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Satish, M. P. Raghavendra, and K. A. Raveesha, “Evaluation of the antibacterial potential of some plants against human pathogenic bacteria,” Advances in Biological Research, vol. 2, no. 3-4, pp. 44–48, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
Y. M. Lee, Y. S. Kim, Y. Lee et al., “Inhibitory activities of pancreatic lipase and phosphodiesterase from Korean medicinal plant extracts,” Phytotherapy Research, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 778–782, 2012.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
R. Park, M.-S. Kim, H.-S. So et al., “Activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) in mistletoe lectin II-induced apoptosis of human myeloleukemic U937 cells,” Biochemical Pharmacology, vol. 60, no. 11, pp. 1685–1691, 2000.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Naser, C. Bodinet, M. Tegtmeier, and U. Lindequist, “Thuja occidentalis (Arbor vitae): a review of its pharmaceutical, pharmacological and clinical properties,” Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 69–78, 2005.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. Kumar, R. Rani, S. Das, and S. Das, “Phytoconstituents and therapeutic potential of Thuja occidentalis,” Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 354–362, 2012.
View at: Google Scholar
F. Ahmed, M. S. H. Reza, I. Z. Shahid, A. Khatun, K. K. Islam, and M. R. Ali, “Antibacterial and antinociceptive activities of Hoya parasitica,” Hamdard Medicus, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 22–26, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
S. K. Sadhu, A. Khatun, T. Ohtsuki, and M. Ishibashi, “Constituents from Hoya parasitica and their cell growth inhibitory activity,” Planta Medica, vol. 74, no. 7, pp. 760–763, 2008.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
S. Mukherjee, P. K. Dutta, M. Chakrabarty, A. K. Barua, S. Dan, and S. S. Dan, “Triterpenes from Hoya parasitica,” Journal of the Indian Chemical Society, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 782–783, 1986.
View at: Google Scholar
J. D. Hooker, The Flora of British India, vol. 4, L. Reeve & Co., Ashford, UK, 1961.
M. A. A. Khan, M. T. Islam, M. A. Rahman, and Q. Ahsan, “Antibacterial activity of different fractions of Commelina benghalensis L,” Der Pharmacia Sinica, Pelagia Research Library, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 320–326, 2011.
View at: Google Scholar
S. M. R. Hasan, M. M. Hossain, R. Akter, M. Jamila, M. E. H. Mazumder, and S. Rahman, “Sedative and anxiolytic effects of different fractions of the Commelina benghalensis Linn,” Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 221–227, 2009.
View at: Google Scholar
V. G. Mbazima, M. P. Mokgotho, F. February, D. J. G. Rees, and L. J. Mampuru, “Alteration of Bax-to-Bcl-2 ratio modulates the anticancer activity of methanolic extract of Commelina benghalensis (Commelinaceae) in Jurkat T cells,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 7, no. 20, pp. 3569–3576, 2008.
View at: Google Scholar
D. Brandis, Indian Trees: An Account of Trees, Shrubs, Woody Climbers, Bamboos and Palms Indigenous or Commonly Cultivated in the British Indian Empire, Overseas Book Deport, Dehra Dun, India, 1906.
M. Sundriyal and R. C. Sundriyal, “Underutilized edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: need for domestication,” Current Science, vol. 85, no. 6, pp. 731–736, 2003.
View at: Google Scholar
A. K. Goyal, T. Mishra, and A. Sen, “Antioxidant profiling of Latkan (Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.) wine,” Indian Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 137–139, 2013.
View at: Google Scholar
X.-W. Yang, H.-P. He, Y.-L. Ma et al., “Three new vanilloid derivatives from the stems of baccaurea ramiflora,” Planta Medica, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 88–90, 2010.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Gomes, M. Das, and S. C. Dasgupta, “Haematinic effect of Hygrophila spinosa T. Anderson on experimental rodents,” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 381–382, 2001.
View at: Google Scholar
U. K. Mazumdar, M. Gupta, S. Maiti, and D. Mukherjee, “Antitumor activity of Hygrophila spinosa on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and sarcoma-180 induced mice,” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 473–477, 1997.
View at: Google Scholar
G. S. Kumari and G. Y. Iyer, “Preliminary studies on the diuretic effects of Hygrophila spinosa and Tribulus terrestris,” The Indian journal of medical research, vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 714–716, 1967.
View at: Google Scholar
S. G. Joshi, Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH publishing, New Delhi, India, 2000.
S. L. Kapoor and R. Mitra, Herbal Drugs in Indian Pharmaceuticals, Echonomic Botany Information Service, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India, 1979.
M. H. Kabir, N. Hasan, M. M. Rahman et al., “A survey of medicinal plants used by the Deb barma clan of the Tripura tribe of Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh,” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 10, no. 1, article 19, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. U. Stuar, “Herbal medicine—an illustrated compilation of Philippine medicinal plants,” http://stuartxchange.com/Bogto.html.
View at: Google Scholar
S. Nayak, S. K. Behera, and M. K. Misra, “Ethno-medico-botanical survey of Kalahandi district of Orissa,” Indian Jour of Traditional Knowledge, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 72–79, 2004.
View at: Google Scholar
A. Khatun, M. Rahman, and S. Jahan, “Preliminary phytochemical and pharmacological screening of Murraya exotica Linn. leaves extract,” Oriental Pharmacy and Experimental Medicine, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 223–229, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
B. N. Meyer, N. R. Ferrigni, J. E. Putnam, L. B. Jacobsen, D. E. Nichols, and J. L. McLaughlin, “Brine shrimp: a convenient general bioassay for active plant constituents,” Planta Medica, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 31–34, 1982.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. J. Finney, Probit Analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 3rd edition, 1971.
View at: MathSciNet
S. M. Sagar, D. Yance, and R. K. Wong, “Natural health products that inhibit angiogenesis: a potential source for investigational new agents to treat cancer—part 1,” Current Oncology, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 14–26, 2006.
View at: Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2014 Amina Khatun et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

5380

Downloads

2031

Citations